Virtus on whitehall: The politics of palladianism in William Kent's treasury building, 1733-61

Journal of Historical Sociology

Volumn 18, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 282-317

  Dodsworth, Francis ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 29144505296     PISSN: 09521909     EISSN: 14676443     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6443.2005.00259.x     Document Type: Review

References (202)

1. J. Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688-1783 (London, 1988);
2. nd series, 41 (1988): 1-32;
3. J. Innes, "Parliament and the Shaping of Eighteenth-Century English Social Policy", Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 40 (1990): 63-92;
4. P. O'Brien, Power With Profit The State and the Economy, 1688-1815 (London, 1991);
5. H. Roseveare, The Financial Revolution, 1660-1760 (London, 1991);
6. P. Harling and P. Mandler, "From 'Fiscal-Military' State to Laissez-faire State, 1760-1850", Journal of British Studies 32 (1993): 44-70;
7. P. O'Brien and P. A. Hunt, The Rise of a Fiscal State in England, 1485-1815", Historical Research 66 (1993): 129-76;
8. P. N. Miller, Defining the Common Good: Empire, Religion and Philosophy in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Cambridge, 1994);
9. L. Stone, ed.. An Imperial State at War: Britain from 1689 to 1815 (London, 1994);
10. J. Kent, The Centre and the Localities: State Formation and Parish Government in England, circa 1640-1740", The Historical Journal 38 (1995): 363-404;
11. M. J. Braddick, The Nerves of State: Taxation and the Financing of the English State, 1558-1715 (Manchester, 1996);
12. D. Eastwood, Government and Community in the English Provinces, 1700-1870 (Basinǵstoke, 1997);
13. J. Brewer and E. Hellmuth, ed. Rethinking Leviathan: The Eighteenth-Century State in Britain and Germany (Oxford, 1999);
14. P. Harling, The Modern British State: An Historical Introduction (Cambridge, 2001), pp. 11-70;
15. J. Innes, "Changing Perceptions of the State in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries", Journal of Historical Sociology 15 (2002): 107-13;
16. P. Langford, "The Management of the Eighteenth-Century State: Perceptions and Implications", Journal of Historical Sociology 15 (2002): 102-6;
17. Q. Skinner, Visions of Politics (3 vols. Cambridge, 2002), vol II, pp. 368-413;
18. J. Innes, "Central Government Interference: Changing Conceptions, Practices and Concerns, 1688-1840", in J. Harris, ed. Civil Society in British History (Oxford, 2003).
19. For which see H. M. Colvin, ed. The History of the King's Works (7 vols. London, 1963-82). For this era in particular see
20. vol. V, ed. H. M. Colvin, J. Mordaunt Crook, K. Downes and J. Newman (London, 1976).
21. Closely related in theme to this study but later in period is J. M. Levine, "Why Neoclassicism? Politics and Culture in Eighteenth-Century England", British Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 25 (2002): 75-101.
22. For examples of the new history uniting political and material culture see T. Mitchell, The Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-Politics, Modernity (Berkeley CA, 2002);
23. C. Muckerji, Territorial Ambitions at the Gardens of Versailles (Cambridge, 1997);
24. C. Otter, "Making Liberalism Durable: Vision and Civility in the Late Victorian City, 1870-1900", Social History 27 (2002): 1-15 and
25. "Cleansing and Clarifying: Technology and Perception in Nineteenth-Century London", Journal of British Studies 43 (2004): 40-64.
26. For the social analysis of architecture see M. Girouard, Cities and People: A Social and Architectural History (London, 1985);
27. D. J. Olsen, The City as a Work of Art: London, Paris, Vienna (London, 1986),
28. as well as the literature on specific architectural subjects below. P. Joyce, The Rule of Freedom: Liberalism and the Modern City (London, 2003)
29. and M. Umbach, "Memory and Historicism: Reading Between the Lines of the Built Environment, Germany, c. 1900", Representations 88 (2004): 26-54, very productively combine these approaches.
30. Similar work has been undertaken in the analysis of the relationship between politics and painting in Skinner, Visions of Politics, vol. II, pp. 39-117 and
31. I. Hampsher-Monk, K. Tilmans and F, van Vree, ed. History of Concepts: Comparative Perspectives (Amsterdam, 1998), pp. 131-238.
32. Skinner, Visions of Politics, vol. I, particularly pp. 90-174.
33. nd edition (Cambridge, 2000).
34. On which see Brewer, The Sinews of Power, Harling, The Modern British State, pp. 11-70
35. and J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Chichester, 1975), pp. 423-505.
36. On the location and destruction of the old Treasury offices see H. Roseveare, The Treasury: The Evolution of a British Institution (London, 1969), pp. 100-2
37. and M. H. Cox and P. Norman, ed. Survey of London, vol XIV: The Parish of St Margaret, Westminster, Part III: Neighbourhood of Whitehall, vol II (London, 1931), pp. 29-30.
38. On the fabrication of the public sphere see M. Ogborn, Spaces of Modernity: London's Geographies, 1680-1780 (New York, 1998), particularly pp. 75-115.
39. D. A. Baugh, "Great Britain's 'Blue-Water' Policy, 1689-1815", International History Review 10 (1988): 33-58.
40. On the division of politics into independent "Country patriots" and the "Court" faction of the government and Crown supporters and a guide to the complex political landscape of the era see H. T. Dickinson, Liberty and Property: Political Ideology in Eighteenth-Century Britain (London, 1977);
41. J. A. W. Gunn, Beyond Liberty and Property: the Process of Self-Recognition in Eighteenth-Century Political Thought (Kingston Ontario, 1983);
42. J. G. A. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History: Essays on Political Thought and History, Chiefly in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1985), particularly pp. 215-53;
43. Clark, English Society 1660-1832.
44. On which see P. Langford, The Exice Crisis: Society and Politics in the Age of Walpole (Oxford, 1975)
45. and J. Black, Robert Walpole and the Nature of Politics in Early Eighteenth-Century Britain (Basingstoke, 1990).
46. On Burlingtonians in the Office of Works, see Colvin, Crook, Downes and Newman, ed. The King's Works, vol. V, pp. 88-9. Much literature has tended to term the early-eighteenth-century adherence to purist classical principles "Palladian"; however, as is made clear in
47. J. Harris, The Palladians (London, 1981);
48. J. Bold, John Webb: Architectural Theory and Practice in the Seventeenth Century (Oxford, 1989);
49. R. Tavernor, Palladio and Palladianism (London, 1991);
50. G. Worsley, Classical Architecture in Britain: The Heroic Age (London, 1995), the term "Palladian" should really be reserved for Palladio's immediate followers, such as Scamozzi and his English disciples Inigo Jones and John Webb. The eighteenth-century version constitutes a revival of this discipleship and is therefore better termed "neo-Palladian". In fact, Palladio's significance was largely felt to be his adherence to true Roman principles and the aim of the neo-Palladians was not to follow Palladio himself per se, but the antique Roman principles his work was felt to embody. As such I make a link between this style and the kind of "neo-Roman" political thought outlined in
51. Q. Skinner, Liberty Before Liberalism (Cambridge, 1998)
52. and Visions of Politics, vol. II, pp. 160-212, 286-367 and which I argue is connected to this mode of architectural display. Since writing the first drafts of this article I have discovered this point developed more generally in the excellent
53. P. Ayres, Classical Culture and the Idea of Rome in Eighteenth-Century England (Cambridge, 1997).
54. Skinner, Liberty Before Liberalism;
55. P. Pettit, Republicanism; A Theory of Freedom and Government, revised edition (Oxford, 1999), pp. 17-50.
56. C. Castoriadis, The Imaginary Institution of Society, trans. K. Blarney (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 353-73.
57. See also C. Castoriadis, World in Fragments: Writings on Politics, Society, Psychoanalysis, and the Imagination, ed. and trans. D. A. Curtis (Stamford CA, 1997), pp. 3-18.
58. M. Foucault, "Governmentality", in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller, ed. The Foucault Effect Studies in Governmentality (Hemel Hemp-stead, 1991), pp. 87-104, at p. 103;
59. P. Corrigan and D. Sayer, The Great Arch: English State Formation as Cultural Revolution (Oxford, 1985), where it is argued that the formation of the state entailed the legitimation and realisation of an ideological construct.
60. See R. Tittler, Architecture and Power: The Town Hall and the English Urban Community, c. 1500-1640 (Oxford, 1991)
61. and N. Pevsner, A History of Building Types (London, 1976), pp. 47-52. Exemplary studies of the relationship between architecture and politics are
62. P. Joyce, The Rule of Freedom, pp. 144-82;
63. J. Lubbock, The Tyranny of Taste: The Politics of Architecture and Design in Britain, 1550-1960 (London, 1995);
64. T. Markus, Buildings and Power: Freedom and Control in the Origin of Modern Building Types (London, 1993).
65. Ayres, Classical Culture.
66. On which see Colvin, Crook, Downes and Newman, ed. The King's Works, vol. V, pp. 398-90 and pls. 55-6.
67. th edition (London, 1993), pp. 368-71
68. and M. I. Wilson, William Kent Architect, Designer. Painter, Gardener, 1685-1748 (London, 1984), pp. 148-57.
69. H. M. Colvin, A Biographical Dictionary of English Architects, 1660-1840 (London, 1954), pp. 341-6.
70. Much of the work we now know to have been by John Webb, but Kent and Campbell were unaware of this, on which see Bold, John Webb, pp. 8-9.
71. Kent had access both to Palladio's original Italian version of the Quattro Libri and a translation by Dubois and Leoni produced in 1715. The version referred to below and from which fig. 3 is taken is not only the most readily available modern edition, it has the advantage of being the approved version of the neo-Palladian school of Kent and Burlington, produced under patronage by another of the latter's protégé's Isaac Ware in 1738.
72. See also F. H. W. Sheppard, ed. Survey of London, vol. XXXII: The Parish of St James, Westminster: Part Two: North of Piccadilly (London, 1963), pl. 84a and
73. R. Wittkower, Palladio and English Palladianism (London, 1974), pp. 164-6.
74. C. Sicca "On William Kent's Roman Sources", Architectural History 29 (1986): 134-58, 145, suggests an alternative source for this, which is plausible, but not radically different and the certainty that Kent had seen the Palladio drawing and Burlington's copy of it makes this a far more likely direct inspiration.
75. See C. Campbell, Vitruvius Britonnicus, or The British Architect [oriǵ. 3 vols. London, 1715-25] (New York, 1967), C1, pl. 29-30 for a similar development of this theme by Campbell.
76. C. Campbell, Vitruvius Britonnicus, or The British Architect Ibid., C2, pl. 99-100.
77. L. Puppi, Andrea Palladio trans. Pearl Saunders (London, 1975), p. 64 pl, 49 and p. 82 pl. 69.
78. W. Kent, The Designs of Inigo Jones, Consisting of Plans and Elevations for Publick and Private Buildings.
79. Published by William Kent, with some Additional Designs, 2 vols. (London, 1727), vol. 2, pl. 40;
80. see also William Kent, Additional Designs, vol. 2, pl. 34.
81. Bold, John Webb, p. 78 and p. 134. Belvoir is exhibited in
82. Kent, The Designs of Inigo Jones, vol. 2, pl. 24.
83. Campbell, Vitruvius Britannicus, C2, pl. 61-2.
84. Bold, John Webb, p. 60 and pl. 34, p. 69.
85. Campbell, Vitruvius Britannicus, C3, pl. 32-3.
86. Lord Herbert's villa can be seen in Vitruvius Britannicus Ibid., C3, pl. 48.
87. A similar Jones house model can be seen in Kent, The Designs of Inigo Jones, vol. 2, pl. 15.
88. Ayres, Classical Culture, especially 105-32;
89. R. Hewlings, "Chiswick House and Gardens: Appearance and Meaning", in T. Barnard and J. Clark, ed. Lord Burlington: Architecture, Art and Life (London, 1995), pp. 1-149;
90. Worsley, Classical Architecture, pp. 130-51.
91. See also C. Christie, The British Country House in the Eighteenth Century (Manchester, 2000), pp. 29-30
92. and T. Williamson, Polite Landscapes: Gardens and Society in Eighteenth-Century England (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995), pp. 61-3.
93. Sicca, "On William Kent's Roman Sources".
94. J. Harris and G. Higgott, Inigo Jones: Complete Architectural Drawings (London, 1989), p. 17, p. 62.
95. R. Morris, In Defence of Ancient Architecture; or a Parallel of the Ancient Buildings and the Modern: Shewing the Beauty and Harmony of the Former and the Irregularity of the Latter (London, 1728), p. 25.
96. Robert Morris, Lectures on Architecture. Consisting of Rides Founded upon Harmonick and Arithmetical Proportions in Building. Design'd As an Agreeable Entertainment for Gentlemen: And More Particularly Useful to all who make Architecture, or the Polite Arts, their Study (London, 1734), p. 42, p. 51.
97. v.
98. The anachronism of our notion of modernity in the early eighteenth century is clearly drawn out in Clark, English Society 1660-1832, pp. 11-12, 15-16.
99. I am referring here to Kent's version of the work of Inigo Jones and Ware's edition of Palladio. These were praised as the source of contemporary adherence to antique principles by Morris, Lectures, p. 42, and were succeeded by further publications from Ware and Vardy.
100. Morris, Defence, p. xvii.
101. See also Morris, Lectures, pp. 52-3.
102. Morris, Defence, pp. xxi-xxii, p. 16.
103. Summerson, Architecture in Britain, p. 315.
104. Plans of the York building are readily available in Catalogue of the Drawings Collection of the Royal Institute of British Architects: B, compiled by M. Richardson (Farnborough, 1972), p. 100, figs. 80-1.
105. Elevations and schematics are contained in Harris, The Palladians, pp. 78-9, figs. 63-5.
106. For the myth of Venice in Florentine republican thought see Pocock, Machiavellian Moment, pp. 183-330. This Florentine influence, Pocock goes on to explain, was the foundation of the republican tradition in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century England and America, identified by Skinner as "neo-Roman". The deconstruction of the Venetian myth is most powerfully presented in
107. D. Wootton, "Ulysses Bound? Venice and the Idea of Liberty from Howell to Hume", in D. Wootton, ed. Republicanism, Liberty and Commercial Society, 1649-1776 (Stanford CA, 1994), pp. 341-67.
108. See also D. E. Queller, The Venetian Patriciate: Reality Versus Myth (Chicago and Urbana, 1986).
109. vf.
110. See also P. F. Brown, Venice and Antiquity: The Venetian Sense of the Past (London, 1996).
111. E. Concica, A History of Venetian Architecture (Cambridge, 1998) is an excellent survey that engages with these themes.
112. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History, p. 232.
113. See the collected essays in Barnard and Clark, ed. Lord Burlington
114. and E. Corp, ed. Lord Burlington - The Man and His Politics: Questions of Loyalty (Lampeter, 1998).
115. These debates have been heavily criticised in E. Gregg's review of the latter in British Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 24 (2001): 95-7 and more kindly but equally thoroughly undermined by
116. J. Carré, "Lord Burlington's Book Subscriptions", in Corp. ed. Lord Burlington, pp. 121-36
117. and Worsley, Classical Architecture, pp. 112-13.
118. H. M. Colvin, "Introduction", in Barnard and Clark, ed. Lord Burlington, pp. xxiii-xxix, at p. xxviii.
119. On meaning as connotative, not denotative, see Castoriadis, Imaginary Institution, p. 143 and pp. 135-46 generally.
120. Colvin, Biographical Dictionary, pp. 649-51.
121. Palladio, Four Books, dedication and frontispiece, no pagination.
122. See Wittkower. Palladio and English Palladianism, p. 69 for a slightly different interpretation of this feature.
123. Palladio, Four Books, p. 57;
124. Wittkower, Palladio and English Palladianism, p. 63.
125. On Machiavelli's use of the term virtù see Skinner, Visions of Politics, vol. II, pp. 160-212.
126. Wittkower, Palladio and English Palladianism, p. 64.
127. Tavernor, Palladio and Palladianism, p. 93.
128. For a general discussion of this subject see S. Burtt, Virtue Transformed: Political Argument in England, 1688-1740 (Cambridge, 1992).
129. D. Leatherbarrow, "Architecture and Situation: A Study of the Architectural Writings of Robert Morris", Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 44 (1985): 48-59, 50. I recognise that Morris is a problematic figure to use in relation to Kent, of whom he was extremely critical for his Gothic work, however the link he establishes between neo-Palladian architecture and virtue is still generally applicable.
130. Colvin, Biographical Dictionary, p. 394.
131. Morris, Lectures, pp. 2-12;
132. Burtt, Virtue Transformed, pp. 110-27.
133. Morris, Defence, p. xii, xvii.
134. Morris, Defence, Ibid., p. xvi.
135. Morris, Defence, Ibid., p. 2.
136. Morris, Defence, Ibid., pp. 7-9, quote at 9.
137. A position most clearly outlined in the work of J. G. A. Pocock.
138. th edn, London, 1757), p. 217.
139. R. Morris, An Inquiry After Virtue: in a Letter to a Friend (London, 1735), p. 13.
140. Morris, Defence, pp. 9-10.
141. Morris, Lectures, p. 43, Dedication, no pagination.
142. Morris, Lectures, Ibid., pp. 38-9.
143. Morris, Defence, p. 21, p. 23, p. 32.
144. M. L. McCormack, The Independent Man: Citizenship and Gender Politics in Georgian England (Manchester, forthcoming).
145. Morris, Defence, p. 97.
146. Morris, Defence, Ibid., p. 20.
147. Pocock, Machiavellian Moment, pp. 423-505
148. and Virtue, Commerce and History, pp. 51-71 and 91-123 and 230-46;
149. see also the collected essays in Wootton, ed. Republicanism, Liberty and Commercial Society.
150. Quoted in J. Sekora, Luxury: The Concept in Western Thought, Eden to Smollett (London, 1977), p. 64.
151. Burtt, Virtue Transformed, pp. 87-109;
152. Skinner, Visions of Politics, vol. II, pp. 344-67.
153. Burtt, Virtue Transformed, p. 88, n. 3.
154. On the location of the Treasury in constitutional argument and its centrality to the networks of patronage see Roseveare, The Treasury, pp. 85-8.
155. Colvin, Crook, Downes and Newman, ed. The King's Works, vol. V, p. 432. The Horse Guards was even more expensive, costing at least £65,000 after an initial estimate of £31,748, p. 440.
156. I speak interchangeably of the "gentry" and the "aristocracy" here, as was common at the time. S. Shapin, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England (London, 1994), pp. 44-7 has shown that although there was a difference in the degree of honour attached to the aristocracy and the gentry there was a fundamental assumption of normative equality between all of "gentle" or "patrician" status which marked anyone above the status of yeoman as a member of the political nation, the public or publica in its restricted sense. This notion of "patrician" equality is supported in
157. Clark, English Society 1660-1832, p. 225 and on p. 53, where he has shown that in the early eighteenth century the term "gentleman" was becoming relatively more prominent than terms such as "yeoman". Equally, throughout the following my account will be gendered: this is deliberate.
158. As McCormack, The Independent Man and Pocock, Machiavellian Moment, p. 37 show, independence in the eighteenth century was a specifically masculine concept; this continued well into the nineteenth century.
159. P. Langford, Public Life and the Propertied Englishman, 1689-1798 (Oxford, 1991), pp. 51-4;
160. Pocock, Machiavellian Moment, p. 450.
161. And see J. Harrington, The Commonwealth of Oceana [1656) in The Commonwealth of Oceana and A System of Politics, ed. J. G. A. Pocock, (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 10-12.
162. A. Sidney, Discourses Concerning Government, 2nd edition, ed. T. G. West (Indianapolis, 1996), p. 6,
163. and see Skinner, Liberty Before Liberalism in general.
164. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History, p. 232;
165. P. Collinson, The Monarchical Republic of Elizabeth I", Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 69 (1987): 394-124 and
166. "The State as 'Monarchical Commonwealth': Tudor' England", Journal of Historical Sociology 15 (2002): 89-95. On the possibility of a republic with a monarch see
167. Skinner, Liberty Before Liberalism, p. 54.
168. Pocock, Machiavellian Moment, pp. 407-8.
169. Morris, Lectures, p. 160, p. 184.
170. Burtt, Virtue Transformed, pp. 110-27.
171. Walpole's sons Horace and Edward served successively as half of the Joint Secretary-ship of the Treasury, the other half of which was Walpole's solid supporter Scrope. There were about thirty-five staff in the Treasury Establishment, of whom about eighteen were actually involved in administration, the rest being housekeepers, letter carriers and so forth: J. C. Sainty, Office Holders in Modern Britain I: Treasury Officials, 1660-1870, (London, 1972). For more extensive characterisation of these officials see
172. Roseveare, The Treasury, pp. 102-10. On the structure of eighteenth-century administration in general,
173. th series, 30 (1980): 91-108.
174. E. Cruickshanks, "The Political Career of the Third Earl of Burlington", in Barnard and Clark, ed. Lord Burlington, pp. 201-15, particularly pp. 203-11.
175. J. Carré, "Lord Burlington's Book Subscriptions", pp. 125-6, 129-30.
176. Morris, Lectures, p. 94, pp. 101-17.
177. Interestingly, Morris also had a clear idea of their being other similar planets within this universe and the possibility of their being inhabited, Lectures, pp. 172-8.
178. W. Roberts, "A Charge to the Grand Jury of the Court Leet for the Manor of Manchester, by William Roberts Esq., Delivered at Michelmas Court", Appendix I in The Court Leet Records of the Manor of Manchester (from the Year 1552 to the Year 1686, and from the Year 1731 to the Year 1846) vol. IX, 1787-1805, ed. J. P. Earwacker (Manchester, 1889), p. 251. On the hierarchical organisation of eighteenth-century society in general, see
179. Clark, English Society 1660-1832, p. 53, pp. 164-200.
180. Lubbock, Tyrrany of Taste, pp. 43-69.
181. F. M. Dodsworth, "'Civic' Police and the Condition of Liberty: The Rationality of Governance in Eighteenth-Century England", Social History 29 (2004): 199-216;
182. Langford, Public Life, pp. 288-509.
183. Miller, Defining the Common Good describes the changing ways this problematic and contested term was defined in the eighteenth century.
184. Q. Skinner, Reason and Rhetoric in the Philosophy of Hobbes (Cambridge, 1996), pp. 66-110;
185. M. L. Clarke, Classical Education in Britain, 1500-1900 (Cambridge, 1959), pp. 3-4;
186. Clark, English Society 1660-1832, pp. 223-5.
187. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History, pp. 37-50. My thanks to Leif Jerram for reminding me of the importance of the Palladian house as a display of the cultivation of gentleman received on the grand tour. For the argument that the tour was central to the cultivation of the character of a gentleman, see
188. J. Black, The British Abroad: The Grand Tour in the Eighteenth Century, new edition (Stroud, 2003)
189. and M. Cohen, Fashioning Masculinity: National Identity and Language in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1996), pp. 54-63.
190. Cohen, Fashioning Masculinity, p. 54.
191. For more on this see L. E. Klein, Shaftesbury and the Culture of Politeness: Moral Discourse and Cultural Politics in Early Eighteenth-Century England (Cambridge 1994)
192. and "Introduction" in A. A. Cooper, Third Earl of Shaftesbury, Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times, ed. L. E. Klein, (Cambridge, 1999), pp. xix-xx.
193. See also the forthcoming work of Carol Matthews, who will deal with the subject in much more depth.
194. Morris, Lectures, pp. 132-3.
195. C. Brooks, "The Country Persuasion and Political Responsibility in England in the 1690s", Parliaments, Estates and Representation 4 (1984): 135-46
196. and D. Hayton "Moral Reform and Country Politics in the Late Seventeenth-Century House of Commons", Post and Present 128 (1990): 48-91.
197. Clark, English Society 1660-1832, pp. 175-6, p. 179;
198. N. Tadmor, "The Concept of the Household-Family in Eighteenth-Century England", Past and Present 151 (1996): 111-40, 112-13.
199. Foucault, "Governmentality", p. 99 and see pp. 90-4.
200. "Economy" of course meant much more than simply parsimony, it implied the correct organisation of government and it carried moral overtones.
201. See for example Tavernor, Palladio and Palladianism, pp. 181-209.
202. On the emergence of "the state" as a conceptually separate entity in England, primarily in the mid-eighteenth century, see Skinner, Visions of Politics, vol. II, pp. 368-413, particularly pp. 408-9.