Imagining "a great manufacturing empire": Virginia and the possibilities of a confederate tariff

Civil War History

Volumn 49, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 334-352

  Carlander, Jay ^a   Majewski, John ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 28844478897     PISSN: 00098078     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (81)

1. "The Address to the South," Charleston Mercury, Dec. 25, 1860
2. "The Constitution of the Confederate States of America, March 11, 1861," in Frank E. Vandiver, Basic History of the Confederacy (Princeton: Van Nostrand Company, 1962), 105
3. Charles Robert Lee, The Confederate Constitutions (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1963), 94
4. Richard Bensel, for example, recognizes that "protectionist sentiment was strong in some quarters of the Confederacy, and attempts were made to expand the tariff into the gray area between revenue collection and import protection." Bensel suggests that protectionist attempts failed because the Confederacy remained committed to the revenue principle. Yet extending a revenue tariff to goods and merchandise previously not dutiable can nevertheless provide incidental protection significant enough to alter trade patterns. See Bensel, Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 1859-1877 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990), 173-76
5. Quoted in J.D.B. De Bow, "Editorial Miscellany," De Bow's Review 25 (Sept. 1858): 374
6. George H. Reese, Proceedings of the Virginia State Convention of 1861, 4 vols. (Richmond: Virginia State Library, 1965) 1:71
7. Charles S. Sydnor, The Development of Southern Sectionalism (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1948), 140-48, 177, 186-91
8. Kevin R. Gutzman, "Preserving the Patrimony: William Branch Giles and Virginia versus the Federal Tariff," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 104 (Summer 1996): 341-72
9. William W. Freehling, Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina, 1816-1836 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1965), 96, 98, 106-108, 117, 125-26, 128-33, 136-40, 154
10. Thomas Cooper, On the Proposed Alteration of the Tariff (Charleston: A.E. Miller, 1823)
11. Lectures on the Elements of Political Economy (1830; reprint, New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1971)
12. Thomas Dew, Lectures on the Elements of the Restrictive System (1829; reprint, New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1969)
13. Quotes in Dumas Malone, The Public Life of Thomas Cooper (1926; reprint, New York: AMS, 1979), 292 [first citation], 307
14. Lowell Harrison, "Thomas Roderick Dew: Philosopher of the Old South," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 57 (Oct. 1949): 400
15. Speech of John Letcher, Feb. 5, 1857, Congressional Globe, 34th Cong., 3d sess., 190
16. Edward Stanwood, American Tariff Controversies in the Nineteenth Century, 2 vols. (1903; rpt., New York: Russell & Russell, 1967), 2:44
17. Robert Royal Russel, Economic Aspects of Southern Sectionalism, 1840-1861 (1924; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1973), 38-40
18. Arthur Charles Cole, The Whig Party in the South (1912; reprint, Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1962), 98, 102
19. Robert Colin McLean, George Tucker: Moral Philosopher and Man of Letters (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1961), 24-29
20. George Tucker, "The Policy of Encouraging Manufactures," Virginia Literary Museum 12 (June 24, 1829): 17
21. On Tucker's authorship of these essays see McLean, George Tucker, 95, 98
22. Jefferson made his statement in a letter to Benjamin Austin, Jan. 9, 1816. See The Portable Thomas Jefferson, ed. Merrill D. Peterson (New York: Viking Penguin, 1975), 549
23. On the Jefferson-Austin correspondence, see Joseph Dorfman, The Economic Mind in American Civilization, 1606-1865, 5 vols. (New York: Viking, 1946), 1:443-44
24. Tucker, "Encouraging Manufactures," 17, 18
25. George Tucker, "The Policy of Encouraging Manufactures - No. 5," Virginia Literary Museum 1.7 (July 29, 1829): 104, 106, 107
26. Tucker, "Encouraging Manufactures - No. 5," 106, 107
27. Tucker, "Encouraging Manufactures - No. 6," 154
28. Quoted in Tipton R. Snavely, George Tucker as Political Economist (Charlottesville: Univ. Press of Virginia, 1964), 115
29. Dorfman, Economic Mind 2:548
30. "CUSPIS" [George Tucker], "Political Economy. The Free Trade Advocate," Virginia Literary Museum 1 (1829): 394, 398
31. Cole, Whig Party, 93
32. Russel, Economic Aspects, 151-52
33. William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion: Secessionists at Bay, 1776-1854 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1990), 363-64
34. William J. Cooper Jr., The South and the Politics of Slavery, 1828-1856 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1978), 154-55
35. Liberty and Slavery: Southern Politics to 1860 (1983; reprint, Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 2000), 202-6
36. Michael F. Holt, The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1999), 161
37. William G. Shade, Democratizing the Old Dominion: Virginia and the Second Party System, 1824-1861 (Charlottesville: Univ. Press of Virginia, 1996), 247, 253-54
38. Charles Henry Ambler, Sectionalism in Virginia from 1776 to 1861 (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1910), 232
39. U.S. House Journal, 27th Cong., 2d sess., 1107-8
40. Congressional Globe, 29th Cong., 1st sess., July 3, 1846, 1052
41. Stanwood, American Tariff Controversies 2:44, 75, 104
42. F. W. Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States, 8th ed. (1931; reprint, New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1967), 114-15
43. Stanwood, American Tariff Controversies 2:29, 70-71
44. Russel, Economic Aspects, 153, 162-63, 166
45. [George Fitzhugh], "State Rights and State Remedies," De Bow's Review 25 (Dec. 1858): 698, 700
46. See Eugene D. Genovese, The World the Slaveholders Made (Middletown: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1988), 165-94
47. and Joseph J. Persky, The Burden of Dependency: Colonial Themes in Southern Economic Thought (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1992), 70-79
48. Fitzhugh, "State Rights," 699
49. Southerners were not shy about rebuking Fitzhugh for his departures from free-trade orthodoxy, along with his other idiosyncrasies; however, in exploring ways to implement economic sectionalism Fitzhugh was in line with many other Virginians in the 1840s and 1850s. See James L. Huston, The Panic of 1857 and the Coming of the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1987), 87
50. Drew Faust, A Sacred Circle: The Dilemma of the Southern Intellectual, 1840-1860 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1978), 127-31
51. Richmond Whig, Jan. 3, 1860
52. Quoted in Charles B. Dew, Ironmaker to the Confederacy: Joseph R. Anderson and the Tredegar Iron Works (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1966), 42-43
53. Edmund Ruffin, Anticipations of the Future, To Serve as Lessons for the Present Times (Richmond: J. W. Randolph, 1860), 19-20, 332
54. Daniel W. Crofts, Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1989), 107
55. Quoted in Russel, Economic Aspects of Southern Sectionalism, 274
56. Reese, Proceedings 1:70
57. Dew, Ironmaker to the Confederacy, 22-26
58. For a discussion of slavery in antebellum Southern industry see Robert S. Starobin, Industrial Slavery in the Old South (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1970)
59. John Majewski, A House Dividing: Economic Development in Pennsylvania and Virginia Before the Civil War (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000), 111-40
60. Reese, Proceedings 2:689
61. David G. Surdam makes this point in his recent analysis of the Northern blockade: "In the absence of an effective blockade, Southerners could have used their collective price-setting power in the world market for raw cotton and shifted some of the cost of a war to consumers of cotton goods, while also releasing manpower for their armies." See Northern Naval Superiority and the Economics of the American Civil War (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 2001), 118
62. Surdam, Naval Superiority, 116
63. Bensel, Yankee Leviathan, 175
64. Richard Cecil Todd, Confederate Finance (Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1954), 123-27
65. Harry L. Watson, Liberty and Power: The Politics of Jacksonian America (New York: Noonday Press, 1999), 113-14
66. David Goldfield, Urban Growth in the Age of Sectionalism: Virginia, 1847-1861 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1977), 264-70
67. Tariff (of 1857) Made of Force by Act of Congress of the Confederates States of America, 9th February (Charleston, S.C.: Evans & Cogswell, 1861)
68. Todd, Confederate Finance, 121-24
69. "South Carolina White Lead, Zinc, and Color Works," Charleston Mercury, Feb. 23, 1861
70. P. E. Walden, Compilation of the Tariff Acts of the Confederate States of America (New Orleans: Corson & Armstrong, 1861), 131-43
71. Thomas F. Huertas, "Damnifying Growth in the Antebellum South," Journal of Economic History 39 (1979): 91
72. Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1960), 539
73. Huertas, "Damnifying Growth," 100
74. For more analysis of the "optimal tariff" concept, see John A. James, "The Optimal Tariff in the Antebellum United States," American Economic Review 71 (1981): 726-34
75. and the succinct discussion in Jeremy Atack and Peter Passell, A New Economic View of American History, 2d ed. (New York: Norton, 1994), 136
76. This literature is summarized in Stanley L. Engerman and Kenneth L. Sokoloff, "Factor Endowments, Institutions, and Differential Paths of Growth Among New World Economies," in How Latin America Fell Behind, Stephen Haber, ed. (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1997), 282-89
77. See also Viken Tchakerian, "Productivity, Extent of Markets, and Manufacturing in the Late Antebellum South and Midwest," Journal of Economic History 54 (1994): 497-525
78. C. R. C., "Existence and Prosperity of the Confederacy," Southern Literary Messenger 37 (1863): 529
79. James McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction, 3d ed. (New York: McGraw Hill, 2001), 35
80. On Southern attachment to agrarianism, see Emory Thomas, The Confederacy as a Revolutionary Experience (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 1991), 8-11
81. For a sophisticated version of this thesis from the perspective of "republican ideology," see Lacy K. Ford Jr., Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1988)