Shockwaves through international law after 11 september: Finding the right responses to the challenges of international terrorism

Legal Instruments in the Fight Against International Terrorism: A Transatlantic Dialogue

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 411-545

  Wouters, J ^a   Naert, F ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEUVEN   (Belgium)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 28044462854     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (428)

1. R.A. Friedlander, 'Terrorism', in R. Bemardt (ed.), Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1999 (2nd edn.), Vol. IV, p. 845.
2. League of Nations, Resolution of 10 Dec. 1934, as cited in Model UN of the Far West, 40th session, 1990, Program of Action to Eliminate Terrorism, http://www.munfw.org/archive/40th/spcl.htm
3. R.A. Friedlander, supra note 1, p. 847.
4. Y. Dinstein, 'The Right of Self-Defence against Armed Attacks', in M.D. Sandhu and P. Nordbeck (eds.), International Terrorism. Report from a Seminar Arranged by the European Law Students' Association in Lund, Sweden, 1-3 October 1987, Lund, Juristforlaget i Lund, 1989, pp. 61-62.
5. T. Marauhn, 'Terrorism. Addendum 1999', in R. Bemardt (ed.), supra note 1, p. 850, referring inter alia to the ambiguity contained in UN Doc. A/RES/40/61 (9 Dec. 1985). This ambiguity can also be found in earlier Resolutions, e.g. UN Doc. AIRES/32/147 (16 Dec. 1977).
6. Y. Dinstein, supra note 5, pp. 59-61. Most of these conventions are available at http://untreaty.un.org/English/Terrorism.asp and at http://www.law.kuleuven.ac.be/iir/eng/Terrorism.html.
7. The Hague, 16 Dec. 1970, entered into force on 14 Oct. 1971, 177 parties (http://www. icao.int).
8. E. Lagos and T.D. Rudy, 'Preventing, Punishing, and Eliminating Terrorism in the Western Hemisphere: A Post-9111 Inter-American Treaty', (2003) 26 Fordham ILJ, 1619-1648.
9. F. Naert, 'Police and Judicial Cooperation in the EU and Counterterrorism', pp. 123-129) and in the contribution by F. Verbruggen, pp. 315-326.
10. T. Marauhn, supra note 7, p. 850
11. OIC, Kuala Lumpur Declaration on International Terrorism, 1-3 Apr. 2002, http://www.oic-oci.org/english/fm/1 l_extraordinary/declaration.htm.
12. Corfu Channel case, 9 Apr. 1949
13. CJ Rep. 1949, 4 et seq., p. 22.
14. ICJ, Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. USA), 27 June 1986
15. CJ Rep. 1986, 14 et seq., § § 201-205
16. Nicaragua case (supra previous note), § 205.
17. C. Gray, International Law and the Use of Force, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 115-119.
18. W. O'Brien, 'Reprisals, Deterrence and Self-Defense in Counterterror Operations', (1989-1990) 30 Virginia JIL 424-469.
19. Foreign and Commonwealth Office (UK) (FCO), Table of Vetoed Draft Resolutions in the United Nations Security Council 1946-1998, 2000, p. 38, http://www.fco.gov.uk/Files/kfile/unscvetoes.pdf.
20. C. Gray, supra note 41, pp. 115-119.
21. Foreign and Commonwealth Office (UK), Libya/Lockerbie: Events Leading Up to the Trial, London, June 2000, http://files.fco.gov.uk/info/briefs/lockerbie.pdf.
22. C.S. Smith, 'Libya to Inflate Amount Paid in '89 Bombing', NY Times online, 31 Aug. 2003
23. M. Naim, 'L'ONU Leve Jes Sanctions Imposees a la Libye Depuis Treize Ans', Le Monde online, 13 Sept. 2003.
24. Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention Arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libya v. UK and Libya v. USA), Orders of 14 Apr. 1992, both available at http://www.icj-cij.org, dissenting opinions of Judge Bedjaoui (also available at http://www.icj-cij.org), both at § 10.
25. Coalition Information Centre, Campaign against Terrorism: a Coalition Update, 11 Mar. 2002, available at http://www.fco.gov.uk/Files/KFile/cicupdate, O.pdf.
26. D. Aston, 'Die Bekampfung Abstrakter Gefahren for den Weltfrieden
27. K. Dicke, 'Weltgesetzgeber Sicherheitsrat', (2001) 49 VN 163-167
28. P.C. Szasz, 'The Security Council Starts Legislating', (2002) 96 AJIL 901-905.
29. G. Abi-Saab, 'There is No Need to Reinvent the Law', Sept. 2002, available at http://www.crimesofwar.org/archive/archive-namerica.html.
30. L. Condorelli, 'Les Attentats du 11 Septembre et Leurs Suites: Ou Va le Droit International?', (2001) 105 RGDIP 835
31. M. Krajewski, 'Selbstsverteitigung gegen Bewaffnete Angriffe Nicht-staatlicher Organisationen-Der. 11. September und Seine Folgen', (2002) 40 AVR 211-212.
32. Namely the contribution by E. Rosand, pp. 603-631. See also the information available on CTC's website (http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/comrnittees/1373)
33. I. Williams, 'Abbringen, Verweigerung, Zusammenarbeit. Der Ausschuss des Sicherheitsrates zur Bekampfung des Terrorismus', (2002) 50 VN 213-216.
34. A. Constantinou, The Rights of Self-Defence under Customary International Law and Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, Brussels, Bruylant, 2000, pp. 54-55
35. B.-O. Bryde, 'Self-Defence', in R. Bernardt (ed.), Encyclopedia of Public International Law, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 2000 (2nd edn.), Vol. IV, p. 363.
36. I. Brownlie (International Law and Use of Force by States, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1963, p. 280)
37. D.W. Bowett, Self-Defence in International Law, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1958, pp. 184-187
38. D. Kritsiotis, 'The Legality of the 1993 US Missile Strike on Iraq and the Right of SelfDefence in International Law', (1996) 45 ICLQ 171.
39. A. Randelzhofer ('Article 51', in B. Simma (ed.), The Charter of the United Nations. A Commentary, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994, p. 678)
40. C. Stahn, 'International Law at a Crossroads. The Impact of September 11', (2002) 62 ZaoRV 229
41. M.J. Glennon, 'How War Left the Law Behind', NY Times, 21 Nov. 2002
42. A.C. Arend, 'International Law and the Preemptive Use of Military Force', (2003) 26 The Washington Quarterly 89-103, especially 99-101.
43. R. Perle, 'Thank God for the Death of the UN', The Guardian, 21 Mar. 2003
44. M. Glennon, 'Why the Security Council Failed', (2003) 82 Foreign Affairs, available at http://www.foreignaffairs.org.
45. E. Luck, 'The End of An Illusion'
46. A.-M. Slaughter, 'Misreading the Record'
47. I. Hurd, 'Too Legit to Quit', in 'Stayin' Alive: The Rumors of the UN's Death Have Been Exaggerated', (2003) 82 Foreign Affairs, available at http://www.foreignaffairs.org.
48. Y. Dinstein, War, Aggression and Self-Defence, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp. 173-174
49. M.N. Schmitt, Counter-Terrorism and the Use of Force in International Law, the Marshall Center Papers, No. 5, Nov. 2002 (available at http://www.marshallcenter.org), pp. 18-19.
50. R. Wedgwood, 'Responding to Terrorism: The Strikes against bin Laden', (1999) 24 Yale JIL 564.
51. S.D. Murphy, 'Terrorism and the Concept of "Armed Attack" in Article 51 of the UN Charter', (2002) 43 Harvard ILJ 50.
52. L. Condorelli, supra note 79, p. 838.
53. A. Randelzhofer, supra note 89, pp. 668-669
54. A. Constantinou, supra note 89, pp. 58-62 ('armed attack is merely a special case of aggression')
55. Y. Dinstein, supra note 99, p. 166 ('An armed attack is, of course, a type of aggression')
56. G. Gaja, In What Sense Was There an 'Armed Attack'?, http://www.ejil.org/forum_WTC/ny-gaja.html.
57. L. Condorelli, supra note 79, p. 838
58. B. Conforti, The Law and Practice of the United Nations, The Hague, Kluwer, 2000 (2nd edn.), p. 176
59. M. Krajewski, supra note 79, pp. 187-188
60. K. Manusama, 'Terrorisme en Zelfverdediging in de Veiligheidsraad', (2001) 30 Vrede en Veiligheid 483
61. E. Myjer and N. White, 'The Twin Towers Attack: an Unlimited Right to Self-Defence?', (2002) 7 Journal of Conflict & Security Law 7.
62. A. Cassese ('Terrorism is also Disrupting Some Crucial Legal Categories of International Law', (2001) 12 EJIL 995) also appears to share this view with respect to the law before 11 September
63. Carten and F. Dubuisson, 'Operation "Liberte Immuable": une Extension Abusive du Concept de Legitime Defense', (2002) 106 RGDIP 55-64
64. C. Stahn, supra note 95, pp. 214-216 (accepting, however, that the imputability may possibly be attenuated in case of failed States)
65. M. Cohn, 'Bombing of Afghanistan is Illegal and Must Be Stopped', 6 Nov. 2001, http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forum/forumnew36.htm
66. S. Ratner, 'Terrorism and The Laws of War: September 11 and its Aftermath', 21 Sept. 2001, http://www.crimesofwar.org/expert/attack-ratner.html.
67. A. Randelzhofer, supra note 89, p. 669.
68. Contra: Y. Dinstein, supra note 99, pp. 214-216
69. T. Franck, 'Editorial Comment. Terrorism and the Right of Self-Defense', (2001) 95 AJIL 840
70. M.N. Schmitt, supra note 101, pp. 25-27
71. R. Wedgwood, supra note 104, p. 564.
72. C. Stahn, supra note 89, p. 218
73. Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, IT-94-1, 15 July 1999, available at http://www.un.org/icty, §§ 97-145.
74. Carten and F. Dubuisson, supra note 112, pp. 65-68
75. C. Stahn, supra note 89, p. 222.
76. Y. Dinstein, supra note 5, pp. 68-69
77. M.N. Schmitt, supra note 101, p. 47
78. R. Wolfrum and C.E. Philipp, 'The Status of the Taliban: Their Obligations and Rights under International Law', (2002) 6 Max Planck Yb. UN Law 593.
79. Compare T. Franck, supra note 115, pp. 840-841
80. C. Stahn, supra note 89, pp. 216-218
81. Y. Dinstein, supra note 99, pp. 183-185
82. C. Gray, supra note 41, pp. 105-106.
83. Corten and F. Dubuisson, supra note 112, pp. 73-75.
84. C. Stahn, supra note 89, p. 238, arguing that this is doubtful
85. A. Cassese, 'Article 51', in J.-P. Cot and A. Pellet (eds.), La Charte des Nations Unies. Commentaire Article par Article, Paris, Economica, 1991 (2nd edn.), pp. 774-775
86. A. Randelzhofer, supra note 89, p. 677.
87. A. Constantinou, supra note 89, pp. 157-163
88. A. Randelzhofer, supra note 89, p. 677.
89. W. O'Brien, supra note 41, pp. 421-478
90. Y. Dinstein, supra note 5, pp. 66-67
91. W.M. Reisman, 'The Raid on Baghdad: Some Reflections on its Lawfulness and Implications', (1994) 5 EJIL 124-129
92. R.W. Tucker, 'Reprisals and SelfDefence: the Customary Law', (1972) 66 AJIL 586-596.
93. J.I. Charney, 'Editorial Comment. The Use of Force against Terrorism and International Law', (2001) 95 AJIL 835
94. C. Gray, supra note 41, pp. 118-119
95. J. Lobel, 'The Use of Force to Respond to Terrorist Attacks: The Bombing of Sudan and Afghanistan', (1999) 24 Yale JIL 540
96. E. Myjer and N. White, supra note 112, p. 8
97. M.E. O'Connell, 'Lawful Responses to Terrorism', 18 Sept. 2001, http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forum/forumnew30.htm
98. A. Randelzhofer, supra note 89, p. 677.
99. Y. Dinstein, supra note 99, pp. 194-203
100. D. Turns, 'Terrorism and The Laws of War: September 11 and its Aftermath', 28 Sept. 2001, http://www.crimesofwar.org/expert/attack-turns.html
101. Y. Dinstein, supra note 99, pp. 165-169
102. A. Randelzhofer, supra note 89, pp. 675-676
103. I. Brownlie, supra note 89, pp. 275-278
104. Y. Dinstein, supra note 99, pp. 165-169
105. A. Randelzhofer, supra note 89, pp. 675-676
106. C. Gray, supra note 41, p. 112
107. A. Randelzhofer, supra note 89, p. 676
108. C. Gray (supra note 41, p. 115)
109. C. Gray, supra note 41, pp. 112 and 115.
110. A.C. Arend (supra note 90, pp. 95-96)
111. C. Gray (supra note 41, pp. 114-115)
112. B.-O. Bryde, supra note 89, p. 362.
113. Similarly I. Brownlie, supra note 89, pp. 275-278
114. A. Cassese, supra note 133, p. 779
115. B. Conforti, supra note 112, p. 176
116. A. Constantinou, supra note 89, pp. 111-121
117. Y. Dinstein, supra note 99, pp. 165-169
118. A. Randelzhofer, supra note 89, pp. 675-676
119. D.W. Bowett, supra note 89, pp. 188-193.
120. Similarly, I. Brownlie, supra note 89, pp. 275-278 juncto 279-280
121. A. Cassese, supra note 133, p. 779
122. A. Constantinou, supra note 89, pp. 111-121
123. D.W. Bowett, supra note 89, pp. 188-193
124. Y. Dinstein (supra note 99, p. 167)
125. M.E. O'Connel, The Myth of Preemptive Self-Defense, paper for the ASIL Task Force on Terrorism, August 2002, available at http://www.asil.org/taskforce/oconnell.pdf, p. 13
126. M. Shaw, International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003 (5th edn.), pp. 1024-1025
127. Similarly J. Lobel, supra note 137, p. 540
128. C. Stahn, supra note 89, pp. 232-233.
129. Y. Dinstein, supra note 99, pp. 182 and 203 (though not specifically in respect of terrorism)
130. J. Lobel, supra note 137, p. 543
131. W. O'Brien, supra note 41, pp. 469-477 (stressing strongly the element of deterring further attacks)
132. M.E. O'Connell, supra note 137 p. 543
133. M.N. Schmitt, supra note 101, pp. 23-25 and 65-66
134. R. Wedgwood, supra note 104, pp. 565 and 575-576
135. M. Shaw appears to share this view in a BBC interview on 9 Oct. 2001 (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/1587034.stm)
136. C. Gray, supra note 41, p. 108
137. Ø. Corten and F. Dubuisson, supra note 112, pp. 73-75
138. M.N. Schmitt, supra note 101, p. 65.
139. C. Gray, supra note 41, p. 106
140. A. Randelzhofer, supra note 89, p. 677
141. A. Constantinou, supra note 89, pp. 161-172
142. M.N. Schmitt, supra note 101, p. 22
143. C. Gray, supra note 41, p. 106
144. A. Randelzhofer, supra note 89, p. 677
145. A. Cassese, supra note 112, p. 999
146. M.N. Schmitt, supra note 101, pp. 21-22 point out that the relevant standard is thus not the massacre caused by the terrorist act to which the use of force responds.
147. A. Roberts ('Counter-terrorism, Armed Force and the Laws of War', (2002) 44 Survival 10-11)
148. Y. Dinstein (supra note 99, pp. 208-212), who argues that proportionality should be interpreted differently when an armed attack is of such gravity as to permit a war in self-defence, which would permit a pursuit of total victory.
149. A. Constantinou, supra note 89, pp. 159-161
150. Y. Dinstein, supra note 99, pp. 183-184
151. D. Kritsiotis, supra note 89, pp. 168-170
152. D. Kritsiotis, supra note 89, pp. 168-169
153. M. Krajewski, supra note 79, pp. 201-202
154. J. Lobel, supra note 137, pp. 539, 543 and 547
155. A. Constantinou, supra note 89, p. 160.
156. Y. Dinstein, supra note 99, p. 184, pointing out that such efforts may be required by the necessity requirement.
157. Y. Dinstein, supra note 99, pp. 189-191
158. C. Gray, supra note 41, p. 91
159. D.W. Greig, 'Self-Defence and the Security Council: What Does Article 51 Require?', (1991) 40 ICLQ 366-388 and 399-402, concluding at p. 402 that the reporting requirement 'must... be regarded as directory and not mandatory'
160. C. Gray (supra note 41, p. 90) this is generally the case, in particular since the Nicaragua case
161. Y. Dinstein, supra note 99, pp. 190-191
162. A. Randelzhofer, supra note 89, p. 677 note 148
163. C. Gray (supra note 41, pp. 116-118) points out that the US reported its 1986, 1993 and 1998 counterterrorism actions to the Security Council as self-defence.
164. I. Brownlie, supra note 89, p. 273
165. B.-O. Bryde, supra note 89, p. 362
166. M. Krajewski, supra note 79, pp. 185-186
167. Y. Dinstein (supra note 99, pp. 160-161)
168. A. Cassese (supra note 133, pp. 771-773) that selfdefence as a right only became relevant once resort to the use of force was prohibited in principle.
169. A. Randelzhofer, supra note 89, p. 677
170. M. Krajewski, supra note 79, pp. 211-212.
171. C. Gray, supra note 41, pp. 92-94
172. L. Condorelli, supra note 79, p. 838
173. B.-O. Bryde, supra note 89, p. 362, who qualifies self-defence as 'a provisional remedy'
174. Y. Dinstein, supra note 5, pp. 62-63
175. R. Wedgwood, supra note 104, p. 560
176. W. O'Brien, supra note 41, pp. 463-467
177. C. Gray, supra note 41, p. 117
178. W.M. Reisman, supra note 136, p. 122
179. M.N. Schmitt, supra note 101, pp. 58-60
180. W.M. Reisman, supra note 136, p. 122
181. D. Kritsiotis, supra note 89, p. 164
182. L. Condorelli, 'A Propos de l'Attaque Americaine contre l'Irak du 26 Juin 1993: Lettre d'un Professeur Desempare aux Lecteurs du JEDI', (1994) 5 EJIL 140, who both note that this criticism was in part levelled at accusations of double standards, notably in comparison with Bosnia.
183. C. Gray, supra note 41, pp. 117-118
184. J. Lobel, supra note 137, p. 538.
185. C. Gray, supra note 41, p. 118.
186. J. Lobel, supra note 137, p. 538.
187. O. Corten and F. Dubuisson, supra note 112, p. 60, note 42
188. M.N. Schmitt, supra note 101, pp. 62-63
189. J. Lobel, supra note 137, p. 538
190. M.N. Schmitt, supra note 101, p. 63
191. J. Lobel, supra note 137, p. 538.
192. C. Gray, supra note 41, p. 118
193. C. Gray, supra note 41, p. 119
194. M.N. Schmitt, supra note 101, p. 13 ('there has been growing support for, or at least diminishing criticism of, forceful counter-terrorist operations').
195. A. Cassese, supra note 112, p. 996
196. K. Manusama, supra note 112, pp. 491-492
197. NATO press release (2001)138, 8 Oct. 2001.
198. S. Duke, 'CESDP and the EU Response to 11 September: Identifying the Weakest Link', (2002) 7 EFAR 163-164
199. N. White, supra note 112, pp. 14-15
200. 'Towards the Prague Summit', speech to the NATO Parliamentary Assembly, Istanbul, 15 Nov. 2002.
201. AFSOUTH, fact-sheet 'Operation Active Endeavour', http://www.afsouth.nato.int/operations/Endeavour/Endeavour.htm
202. NATO press release (2003)16, 5 March 2003
203. EU Glossary, 'European Conference', http://www.europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/cig/g4000e.htm#e27
204. E. Lagos and T.D. Rudy, supra note 28, pp. 1619-1648
205. M. Gorina-Ysern, 'Inter-American Regional Security against Terrorism: A Shield and a Sword', Addendum to F.L. Kirgis, 'Terrorist Attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon', ASIL Insight, Sept. 2001, http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh77. htm#addendum6.
206. M.N. Schmitt, supra note 101, pp. 8-10.
207. L. Condorelli, supra note 79, p. 840
208. O. Corten and F. Dubuisson, supra note 112, p. 53 note 4.
209. A. Martyn, The Right of Self-Defence under International Law-the Response to the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, Department of the Parliamentary Library (Australia), 1 Jan. 2002, p. 2
210. K. Manusama, supra note 112, p. 483
211. E. Myjer and N. White, supra note 112, p. 7
212. F. Megret, '"War"? Legal Semantics and the Move to Violence', (2002) 13 EJIL 372
213. A.P.V. Rogers, 'Terrorism and The Laws of War: September 11 and its Aftermath', 21 Sept. 2001, http://www.crimesofwar.org/expert/attack-apv.html
214. C. Stahn, Security Council Resolutions 1368 (2001) and 1373 (2001): What They Say and What They Do Not Say, available at http://www.ejil.org/forum_WTC/ny-stahn.html
215. Y. Arai-Takahashi, 'Shifting Boundaries of the Right of Self-Defence-Appraising the Impact of the September 11 Attacks on the Jus Ad Bellum', (2002) 36 The International Lawyer 1092-1095
216. K. Manusama, Re: SC Resolution 1368 and Self-Defence, available at http://www.ejil.org/forum_WTC/messages/7.html
217. M. Cogen, 'Terrorism and The Laws of War: September 11 and its Aftermath', 7 Nov. 2001, http://www.crimesofwar.org/expert/attack-cogen.html
218. House of Commons Library, Operation Enduring Freedom and the Conflict in Afghanistan: An Update, Research Paper 01/81, 31 Oct. 2001, pp. 12-13 (http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp2001/rpO1-081.pdt)
219. Similarly, M. Ratner, 'An Alternative to the Use of US Military Force', 27 Sept. 2001, http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forum/forumnew32.htm
220. E. Benvenisti, 'Terrorism and The Laws of War: September 11 and Its Aftermath', 21 Sept. 2001, http://www.crimesofwar.org/expert/attack-eyal.html
221. S.N. Sinha, 'Terrorism and The Laws of War: September 11 and Its Aftermath', 28 Nov. 2001, http://www. crimesofwar.org/expert/attack-sinha.html
222. M.N. Schmitt ('Preemptive Strategies in International Law', (2003) 24 Michigan JIL 531-536)
223. A. Pellet, 'No, This Is Not War!', available at http://www.ejil.org/forum_WTC/ny-pellet.html
224. M. Matheson, 'Terrorism and The Laws of War: September 11 and its Aftermath', 21 Sept. 2001, http://www.crimesofwar.org/expert/attack-math.html
225. R. Wedgwood, 'Al Qaeda, Terrorism, and Military Commissions',(2002) 96 AJ/L 329
226. F.L. Kirgis, 'Security Council Adopts Resolution on Combating International Terrorism', 1 Oct. 2001, addendum to F.L. Kirgis, ASIL Insight, Sept. 2001, http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh77.htm#addendum7
227. J. Paust, 'Security Council Authorization to Combat Terrorism in Afghanistan', 23 Oct. 2001
228. F. L Kirgis, ASIL Insight of Sept. 2001, http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh77.htm#comment4
229. C. Stahn, 'Addendum: Security Council Resolutions 1377 (2001) and 1378 (2001)', 1Dec. 2001, available at http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh77.htm#addendum9
230. National Security Strategy of the United States of America, Sept. 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.html
231. National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction, Dec. 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/12/WMDStrategy.pdf, p. 3
232. National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, Feb. 2003, available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/02/counter_terrorism/counter_terrorism_strategy.pdf, p. 2
233. P. Baker and B. Glasser, 'Putin Says Russians Can Attack in Georgia', International Herald Tribune, 13 Sept. 2002
234. C. Gray, 'The US National Security Strategy and the New Bush Doctrine on Preemptive SelfDefense', (2002) 1 Chinese JIL 444 (page numbers are those of the version previously available at http://www.chinesejil.org/2002b/gray.pdf)
235. R. Cottrell, 'Russia Denies Its Aircraft Bombed Georgia', Financial Times online, 26 Aug. 2002
236. S.L. Myers, 'Georgia Moves against Rebels and Accuses Russia of Airstrikes', NY Times, 24 Aug. 2002
237. J. Shaw, 'Startling His Neighbours, Australian Leader Favors First Strikes', http://www.nyt.com, 2 Dec. 2002
238. A Secure Europe in a Better World. European Security Strategy, adopted by the European Council of Brussels on 12 Dec. 2003 (§ 83 conclusions, available at http://ue.eu.int/en/Info/eurocouncil/index.htm)
239. Reuters, 'World Leaders Express Applause, Regret and Anger', http://www.nyt.com, 20 Mar. 2003
240. inter alia 'Agora: Future Implications of the Iraq Conflict', (2003) 97 AJIL 553-642
241. D.E. Sanger and T. Shanker, 'Reluctant US Gives Assent for Missiles to Go to Yemen', http://www.nyt.com, 12 Dec. 2002
242. F.L. Kirgis, 'Boarding of North Korean Vessel on the High Seas'ASILinsight, 12 Dec. 2002, http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh94.htm
243. P.-M. Dupuy, 'The Law after the Destruction of the Towers', available at http://www.ejil.org/forum_WTC/ny-dupuy.html
244. 12 Aug. 1949, 75 UNTS 31
245. 12 Aug. 1949, 75 UNTS 85
246. 12 Aug. 1949, 75 UNTS 135
247. 12 Aug. 1949, 75 UNTS 287
248. 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 3
249. 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 609
250. Prosecutor v. Zejnil Delalic, Zdravko Mucic, also known as "Pavo", Hazim Delic and Esad Land f, o, also known as "Zenga" (CelebiCi), IT-96-21, 16 Nov. 1998, available at http://www.un.org/icty, § 184
251. M. Boot, Nullum Crimen Sine Lege and the Subject Matter Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court, Antwerp, Intersentia, 2002, p. 549
252. 'Detention, Treatment, and Trial of Certain Non-Citizens in the War against Terrorism', 13 Nov. 2001
253. A. Zimmermann, 'Article 8', in O. Triffterer (ed.), Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Baden-Baden, Nomos, 1999, p. 276
254. Human Rights Watch (HRW), Legal Issues Arising from the War in Afghanistan and Related Anti-Terrorism Efforts, Oct. 2001, http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/septemberll/ihlqna.htm
255. M. Schmitt, 'Rethinking the Geneva Conventions', 30 Jan. 2003, http://www.crimesofwar.org/expert/genevaConventions/gc-schmitt.html
256. R. Cryer, 'The Fine Art of Friendship: Jus in Bello in Afghanistan', (2002) 7 Journal of Conflict & Security Law 42
257. Juan Carlos Abella v. Argentina, Report 55/97, Case 11.137, 18 Nov. 1997, available at http://www.cidh.oas.org, §§ 146-156
258. P. Weckel, 'Le Statut Incertain des Detenus sur la Base Americaine de Guantanamo', (2002) 106 RGDIP 366
259. J. Fitzpatrick, 'Jurisdiction of Military Commissions and the Ambiguous War on Terrorism', (2002) 96 AJIL 247
260. C. Mallat, 'September 11 and the Middle East: Footnote or Watershed in World History', September 2002, available at http://www.crimesofwar.org/sept-mag/sept-mallat.html
261. J. Cerone ('Act of War and State Responsibility in "Muddy Waters": The Non-state Actor Dilemma', Comment to F.L. Kirgis, Sept. 2001 ASIL Insight, http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh77.htm#
262. A.P.V. Rogers, 'The Use of Military Courts to Try Suspects', (2002) 51 ICLQ 976
263. J. Paust, 'Antiterrorism Military Commissions: Courting Illegality', (2001) 23 Michigan JIL 8
264. C. Greenwood, 'Scope of Application of Humanitarian Law', in D. Fleck (ed.), The Handbook of Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts, Oxford, OUP, 1995, p. 41
265. I. Detter, The Law of War, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000 (2nd edn.), p. 14
266. C. Greenwood, 'Customary Law Status of the 1977 Additional Protocols', in A. Delissen and G. Tanja (eds.), Humanitarian Law of Armed Conflict, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1991, pp. 93-114
267. L. Penna, 'Customary International Law and Protocol I: An Analysis of Some Provisions', in C. Swinarski (ed.), Studies and Essays on International Humanitarian Law and Red Cross Principles, The Hague, Nijhoff, 1984, pp. 201-225
268. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, ICTR-96-4, 2 Sept. 1996, §§ 609-610 (available at http://www.ictr.org)
269. Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to Paragraph 5 of Security Council Resolution 955 (1994), UN Doc. S/1995/134 (13 Feb. 1995), §§ 11-12 (most Secretary-General Reports to the Security Council since 1994 are available at http://www.un.org/documents/repsc.htm)
270. R.K. Goldman and B.D. Tittemore, Unprivileged Combatants and the Hostilities in Afghanistan: Their Status and Rights Under International Humanitarian and Human Rights Law, ASIL Task Force on Terrorism, December 2002, available at http://www.asil.org/taskforce/index.htm, p. 37
271. L. Condorelli, 'War Crimes and Internal Conflict in the Statute of the International Criminal Court', in M. Politi and G. Nesi (eds.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Challenge to Impunity, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2001, pp. 107-117
272. S. Boelaert-Suominen, 'The Yugoslavia Tribunal and the Common Core of Humanitarian Law Applicable to All Armed Conflicts', (2000) 13 Leiden JIL 619-653
273. R.K. Goldman, 'Terrorism and The Laws of War: September 11 and its Aftermath', 21 Sept. 2001, http://www.crimesofwar.org/expert/attack-gold.html
274. E. David, Principes de Droit des Conflits Armes, Brussels, Bruylant, 2003 (3rd edn.), p. 152.
275. R.K. Goldman and B.D. Tittemore, supra note 322, pp. 5-6
276. K. Ipsen, 'Combatants and Non-Combatants', in D. Fleck (ed.), supra note 315, p. 68
277. J. Paust, There Is No Need to Revise the Laws of War in the Light of September 11th, ASIL Task Force on Terrorism, Nov. 2002, available at http://www.asil.org/taskforce/index.htm, pp. 6-7
278. M. Bothe, 'Peacekeeping and International Humanitarian Law: Friends or Foes', (1996) International Peacekeeping 92
279. J. Cerone, 'Minding the Gap: Outlining KFOR Accountability in Post-Conflict Kosovo', (2001) 12 EJIL 484-485
280. M.J. Kelly, Restoring and Maintaining Order in Complex Peace Operations, The Hague, Kluwer, 1999, p. 155
281. A. Roberts, 'What is a Military Occupation?', (1984) 55 BYIL 276-279, 297-298 and 300.
282. Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld stated in a briefing on 8 Feb. 2002 that: 'the Geneva Convention does apply to the conflict with the Taliban' (http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Feb2002/t02082002_t0208sd.html).
283. E. Becker and E. Schmitt, 'US Planes Bomb a Red Cross Site for Second Time', http://www.nyt.com, 27 Oct. 2001
284. R. Cryer, supra note 308, pp. 53-55.
285. T. Shanker, 'US Says 16 Killed in Raid Weren't Taliban or Al Qaeda', http://www.nyt.com, 22 Feb. 2002
286. C. Gall and C. Smith, 'Afghan Witnesses Say G.I.'s Were Duped in Raid on Allies', id., 27 Feb. 2002
287. T. Weiner, 'Villagers Dying Under US Bombs, Anti-Taliban Forces Say', id., 3 Dec. 2001
288. B. Bearak, 'Uncertain Toll in the Fog of War: Civilian Deaths in Afghanistan', id., 10 Feb. 2002.
289. E. Schmitt, 'Pentagon Says Error Led to Bombing of Houses in Kabul', id., 14 Oct. 2001.
290. A. Waldman, 'Debate over US Raid on Convoy Exposes Fluid Loyalties in Area Shaken by War,' http://www.nyt.com, 28 Dec. 2001.
291. R. Cryer, supra note 308, pp. 51-53.
292. D. Filkins, 'Taliban Arab, Like Many, Longs for Home but Faces a Doubtful Fate', http://www.nyt.com, 2 Dec. 2001
293. R. Cryer, supra note 308, pp. 79-81.
294. Crimes of War Project, 'Reports of Summary Executions on Both Sides', Nov. 2001, http://www.crimesofwar.org/expert/news.html
295. C. Stephen, 'In a Rancid Jail the Deposed Lords of Kabul Await Death', The Observer, 18 Nov. 2001.
296. C. Gall, 'Witness Recount Taliban Dying While Held Captive', http://www.nyt. com, 11 Dec. 2001
297. L. Rubenstein, 'Evidence Awaits in Mass Graves', http://www.iht.com, 22 Aug. 2002.
298. D. White, US Faces Dilemma over Konduz Fighters, http://www. ft.com, 22 Nov. 2001.
299. H. Post, 'AlQaeda-en Talibanstrijders: Krijgsgevangenen of Niet?', (2002) 56 Internationale Spectator 259.
300. R. Wedgwood, 'Prisoners of a Different War', The Financial Times, 29 Jan. 2002.
301. T.D. Gill, 'De Gedetineerden in Guantanamo en het Internationale Humanitaire Recht', (2002) 77 NJB 408 and J. Paust, supra note 337, p. 8.
302. F. Kalshoven and L. Zegveld, Constraints on the Waging of War, Geneva, ICRC, 2001 (3rd edn.), p. 52.
303. Y. Naqvi, 'Doubtful Prisoner-of-War Status', (2002) 84(847) IRRC 591-593
304. C. Doebbler, 'POWs or Unlawful Combatants', Jan. 2002, http://www.crimesofwar.org/expert/pow-doebbler.html
305. R.K. Goldman and B.D. Tittemore, supra note 322, pp. 30-32
306. H.H. Koh, 'The Case against Military Commissions', (2002) 96 AJIL 340, note 21
307. J. Paust, supra note 314, p. 7, note 15
308. A. Roberts, 'Even Our Enemies Have Rights. Britain Must Stand Up for Them. US Treatment of the Guantanamo Bay Prisoners Defies International Standards', The Independent, 20 Jan. 2002, http://argument.independent. co.uk/commentators/story.jsp?story=l 15372
309. C. Stahn, supra note 89, pp. 204-205
310. P. Weckel, supra note 309, p. 365.
311. F. Davies, 'US Rejects Call to Weigh Detainees' Status. Rights Panel Gets a Blunt Response', Miami Herald online, 12 Apr. 2002
312. A.P.V. Rogers, 'POWs or Unlawful Combatants?', Jan. 2002, http://www.crimesofwar.org/expert/pow-rogers.html.
313. D. Rohde, 'Taliban Raids Widen in Parts of Afghanistan', NY Times, 1 Sept. 2003.
314. D. Rohde, 'US Faulted in Afghan Prison Deaths', International Herald Tribune, 2 Dec. 2003
315. T. Wagner, 'Amnesty Criticises US for Afghan Deaths', 1 Dec. 2003, http://www.guardian.co.uk.
316. LCHR, 'Lawyers Committee for Human Rights Urges United States to Refrain from Transferring War Captives Outside Iraq', 8Apr. 2003, available at http://www.lchr.org ('this would include... persons whom the U.S. has termed "unlawful combatants'").
317. G. Miller, 'Many Held at Guantanamo Not Likely Terrorists', Los Angeles Times, 22 Dec. 2002.
318. J. Paust, 'Many Held at Guantanamo Not Likely Terrorists', Los Angeles Times, p. 24, note 67.
319. J. Risen and T. Shanker, 'Hussein Enters Post-9111 Web of US Prisons', 18 Dec. 2003, http://www.nyt.com
320. HRW, 'US: Commission Rules Meet Some, Not All, Rights Concerns', 21 Mar. 2002, http://hrw.org/press/2002/03/tribunals0321.htm
321. American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), 'ACLU Comments on Draft Military Commission Instruction, "Crimes and Elements for Trials by Military Commissions" released on February 28, 2003', 19 Mar. 2003, http://www.aclu.org/NationalSecurity/Nationa1Security.cfm?ID=l2163&c=l 1l
322. HRW, 'Letter to Department of Defense General Counsel Haynes Commenting on Draft Military Commission Instruction on "Crimes and Elements for Trials by Military Commission'", 14 Mar. 2003, http://hrw.org/press/2003/03/us031403.htm
323. LCHR, 'Lawyers Committee for Human Rights Urges United States to Refrain from Transferring War Captives Outside Iraq', 8 Apr. 2003, available at http://www.lchr.org
324. N.A. Lewis, 'Six Detainees Soon May Face Military Trials', NY Times, 4 July 2003. For the state of affairs of proceedings relating to several terrorism and civil liberties related cases, see http://www.ccr-ny.org/v2/legal/september_l 1th/september_l1th. asp and http://www.nimj.org (under 'Cases').
325. C. Gall and N.A. Lewis, 'Tales of Despair From Guantanamo' NY Times, 17 June 2003 (mentioning that 41 detainees had been released in all at that time).
326. N.A. Lewis, 'US in Talks to Return Scores Held at Base', I Dec. 2003, http://www. nyt.com.
327. Dept. of Defense, 'Transfer of Guantanamo Detainees Complete', press release, 24 Nov. 2003, http://www.dod.gov/releases/2003/nr20031124-0685.html, noting that 20 detainees were released but that approximately 20 others had arrived, leaving the total number at about 660.
328. R.P. Masterton, 'Military Commissions and the War on Terrorism', (2002) 36 The International Lawyer 1165-1172
329. LCHR, 'Justice for 9/11 and Its Aftermath Is Not One Size Fits All', 5 Dec. 2001, available at http://www.lchr.org
330. M.J. Matheson, 'US Military Commissions: One of Several Options', (2002) 96 AJIL 354-358
331. R. Wedgwood, 'Tribunals and the Events of September 11th', ASIL Insight, Dec. 2001, http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh80.htm.
332. N. Lewis, 'Bowing to Ally, Bush to Rethink Tribunals for British Subjects', NY Times, 19 July 2003
333. UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 'Attorney General to Visit Washington to Discuss Guantanamo Bay Detainees', press release, 18 July 2003 (available at http://www.fco.gov.uk)
334. S. Lyall, 'Death Penalty Ruled Out for British Detainees', NY Times, 23 July 2003
335. B. Mears, 'Supreme Court Will Hear First Appeals Involving Guantanamo Detainees', 11 Nov. 2003, available at http://www.cnn.com
336. L. Greenhouse, 'Justices to Hear Case of Detainees at Guantanamo', 11 Nov. 2003, http://www.nyt.com.
337. J. Markon 'Brief Urges Review of Hamdi Case. Attorney Wants Supreme Court Ruling on Detention Policy', Washington Post, 18 Dec. 2003, p. A2
338. J. Markon and D. Eggen, 'US Allows Lawyer For Citizen Held as "Enemy Combatant". Reversal Comes on Eve of Court Filing', Washington Post, 3 Dec. 2003
339. D. Pearlstein, 'Detained at the Whim of the President', International Herald Tribune, 10 Dec. 2003
340. J. Stewart, 'Courts Rebuke Bush On Detainees', 18 Dec. 2003, available at http://www.cbsnews.com.
341. F. Vannneste and N. van Leuven, 'Noodtoestand: een Vrijgeleide om Terrorisme te Bestrijden', in B. Pattyn and J. Wouters (eds.), Schokgolven: Terrorisme, Fundamentalisme en 11 September, Leuven, Davidsfonds, 2002, pp. 147-158.
342. ECtHR, Lawless v. Ireland, 1 July 1961
343. S. Joseph, J. Schultz and M. Castan, The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Cases, Materials and Commentary, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 59-62
344. M. Nowak, U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political rights. CCPR Commentary, Kehl, Engel, 1993, pp. 42-43.
345. M. Bossuyt, Guide to the "Travaux Preparatoires" of the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights, Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff, 1987, pp. 49-46, especially pp. 53-55.
346. T. Meron, 'Extraterritoriality of Human Rights Treaties', (1995) 89 AJIL 78-82
347. T. Meron, Extraterritoriality of Human Rights Treaties previous note, p. 79
348. Kindler v. Canada, supra note 499, § 6.2. See also T. Meron, supra note 497, p. 80.
349. T. Meron, supra note 497, p. 80.
350. M. Nowak, supra note 493, pp. 50-52.
351. Halima Musa Issa and Others v. Turkey, 30 May 2000 (decision as to the admissibility).
352. J. Cerone, supra note 341, p. 477, note 43.
353. IACtHR, Interpretation of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man within the Framework of Article 64 of the American Convention on Human Rights, Advisory Opinion OC-10/89, 14 July 1989 (available at http://www.corteidh.or.cr), §§ 41-47
354. See Arts. 1 and 18-20 Statute of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, OAS Res. 447 (IX-0179), available at http://wwwl.umn.edu/humanrts/oasinstr/zoas4cms.htm.
355. Coard et al. v. United States (supra note 519), § 37. For a more detailed discussion of this case, see J. Cerone, supra note 341, p. 477.
356. R.K. Goldman and B.D. Tittemore, supra note 322, pp. 40-42.
357. L. De Smet and F. Naert, 'Making or Breaking International Law? An International Law Analysis of Belgium's Act Concerning the Punishment of Grave Breaches of International Humanitarian Law', (2002) 35 Revue Beige de Droit International 482-489.
358. H.-P. Gasser, 'Acts of Terror, "Terrorism" and International Humanitarian Law', (2002) No. 847 IRRC 547-570, especially pp. 554-562.
359. H.-P. Gasser, supra note 530, p. 559
360. H.-P. Gasser, supra note 530, p. 562.
361. F. Kalshoven and L. Zegveld, supra note 397, p. 188.
362. Appeals Chamber, Tadic case (supra note 118), 2 Oct. 1995, § 134.
363. HRW, Erased in a Moment: Suicide Bombing Attacks against Israeli Civilians, October 2002, pp. 47-50, http://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/isrl-pa/ISRAELPA 1002.pdf.
364. Mary Robinson, the then UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN press release, 25 Sept. 2001)
365. Spanish Prime Minister Aznar (see e.g. 'A Time for Moral Courage', http://www.ft.com, 20 Sept. 2001)
366. the Swedish Permanent Representative to the UN (in a speech to the UNGA on 3 Oct. 2001, available at http://www.un.int/sweden)
367. M. Shaw in a BBC interview on 9 Oct. 2001 (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/1587034.stm)
368. A. Roberts, supra note 159, p. 8
369. B. Ferencz, 'Crimes against Humanity', Interview, 19 Sept. 2001, http://www.benferencz.org/npr.htm
370. R. Falk, 'Defining a Just War', The Nation, 29 Oct. 2001, http://www.globalpolicy.org/wtc/analysis/291O.htm
371. HRW, supra note 308, the references in A. Cassese, supra note 112, pp. 994-995
372. C. Stahn, supra note 89, pp. 244-248
373. L. Condorelli, supra note 79, p. 845
374. A. Pellet, supra note 260
375. D. Tums, supra note 137 are more doubtful.
376. 'Basque Nationalist Party Shut Down', The Guardian online, 26 Aug. 2002; CNN. com
377. CNN. com, 'Spain Moves to Outlaw Basque Party', 26 Aug. 2002
378. E. Daly, 'Judge Bans Basque Party, Linking It to Terrorists', http://www.nyt.com, 27 Aug. 2002.
379. HRW, supra note 539, pp. 45-47.
380. Ct. App. (DC), Tel-Oren v. Libyan Arab Republic, 3 Feb. 1984, 726 F.2d.774 (DC Cir. 1984)
381. US Ct. App. (9th Cir.), Cheema and Kaur v. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1 Dec. 2003, available at http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/data2/circs/9th/02713l1 p.pdf
382. International Law in Brief, 16 Dec. 2003, available at http://www.asil.org/ilibindx.htm.
383. Pravda online, 6 Nov. 2001, http://english.pravda.ru/politics/2001/11/06/20238.html
384. A. Zimmermann, 'Article 5', in 0 Triffterer (ed.), supra note 308, pp. 98-99.
385. S. Zappala, 'Do Heads of State in Office Enjoy Immunity from Jurisdiction for International Crimes? The Ghaddafi Case Before the French Cour de Cassation', (2001) 12 EJIL 607-609
386. A. Cassese, supra note 112, p. 994
387. F.L. Kirgis, September 2001 ASIL Insight, 21 Sept. 2001, http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh77. htm#addendum5
388. K. Verdoodt, A Role for the International Criminal Court in the Fight against Terrorism?
389. KU Leuven, Institute for International Law, Working Paper No. 26, Aug. 2002, available at http://www.law.kuleuven.ac.be/iir/eng
390. C. Stahn, supra note 89, pp. 252-254.
391. International Commission of Jurists, supra note 231, §§ 46-52
392. HRW, supra note 308.
393. M. Henzelin, Le Principe de l'Universalite en Droit Penal International, Brussels, Bruylant, 2000, pp. 294-318, especially pp. 316-318
394. M. Krajewski, supra note 79, p. 205
395. United States v. Yousef et al., Nos. 98-1041, 98-1197, 98-1355, 98-1544, 98-1554, 4 Apr. 2003, available at http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/data2/circs/2nd/981041 p.pdf, p. 44 and 53-60
396. J. Wouters and F. Naert, 'The EU's Criminal Law Approach to Terrrorism-What has been achieved so far?', 6 Challenge Europe, Jan. 2002, available at http://www.theepc.net
397. inter alia the contributions by F. Verbruggen, pp. 315-326
398. J. Wouters and F. Naert ('Police and Judicial Cooperation in the EU and Counterterrorism'), pp. 123-129
399. J. Wouters and F. Naert, The European Union and 'September 11', (2003) 13 Indiana International & Comparative Law Review 735-741.
400. L. De Smet and F. Naert, supra note 529, pp. 471-511.
401. 'Syria Asks UN to Condemn Israel', 5 Oct. 2003, available at http://www.cnn.com
402. J.W. Anderson, 'Israeli Airstrike Hits Site in Syria' Washington Post, 6 Oct. 2003
403. Similarly, M.N. Schmitt, supra note 259, pp. 542-543.
404. L. Condorelli, supra note 79, pp. 832-836
405. P.-M. Dupuy, supra note 299.
406. Report of the Secretary-General, The Situation in Afghanistan and its Implications for International Peace and Security, UN Doc. A/56/1000-S/20021737 (11 July 2002), §§ 18-27 and 69.
407. Killing You Is a Very Easy Thing For Us: Human Rights Abuses in Southeast Afghanistan, July 2003, http://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/afghanistan0703/)
408. 'Afghanistan. Not a Dress Rehearsal', The Economist online, 14 Aug. 2003.
409. A. Waldman, 'NATO Takes Control of Peace Force in Kabul', NY Times, 12 Aug. 2003 and http://www.nato.int/issues/afghanistan/index.htm
410. 'NATO Approves Support for Poland in Iraq', NATO Update, 3 June 2003 (http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2003/06-june/e0603c.htm)
411. 'Plans for NATO Support to Poland's Iraq Mission Finalized', NATO Update, 30 June 2003 (http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2003/06-june/e0630b.htm)
412. 'NATO and Iraq', http://www.nato.int/issues/iraq/index.htm.
413. European Security Strategy (supra note 282), II, pp. 9-10
414. EU Strategy against Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (supra note 286), Ch. II, A and the European Council Declaration on Transatlantic Relations (Brussels, 12 Dec. 2003, conclusions, Annex, §§ 2 and 10, available at http://ue.eu.int/en/Info/eurocouncil/index.htm), § 4.
415. EU Strategy against Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (supra note 286), § 15.
416. A. Roberts, supra note 159, pp. 1-27 and M. Schmitt, supra note 308.
417. Similarly, J. Paust, supra note 337, especially p. 12
418. S.R. Ratner, 'Rethinking the Geneva Conventions', 30 Jan. 2003, http://www.crimesofwar.org/expert/genevaConventions/gc-ratner.html
419. A. Roberts, supra note 159, p. 27
420. 'ICRC Rejects Talk of Geneva Conventions Review', Reuters, 21 Mar. 2002.
421. UN, 'UN Rights Experts "Alarmed" that Anti-Terror Measures Pose Threat to Liberties', UN press release, 30 June 2003.
422. L. Condorelli, supra note 79, p. 835 and G. Abi-Saab, supra note 78.
423. D. Rieff, supra note 567, who argues that 'international law is under threat as it has not been since the Second World War'
424. A. Neier, 'Did the Era of Rights End on September 11?', September 2002, available at http://www.crimesofwar.org/sept-mag/sept-neier.html.
425. A. Neier, supra previous note: 'Though these are difficult times for proponents of rights, it may be too soon to ring the death knell on the era of rights.... The international human rights movement is well organised and may flourish in a period of adversity'. Contra: D. Rieff, supra note 567, who argues that 'radically diminishing the importance of international law... is a process already well under way, and, seemingly at least, quite unstoppable'.
426. UN, 'IAEA Signs Accord for Enhanced UN Nuclear Inspections in Iran', press release, 18 Dec. 2003.
427. D.E. Sanger and J. Miller, 'Libya to Give Up Arms Programs, Bush Announces', 20 Dec. 2003
428. P.E. Tyler, 'Secret Diplomacy Won Libyan Pledge on Arms', 21 Dec. 2003, both http://www.nyt.com.