Reflections on the nature of an urban bog

Urban History Review

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 9-27

  Hermansen, Sally ^a   Wynn, Graeme ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GIS; HABITAT CONSERVATION; NATURE-SOCIETY RELATIONS; URBAN DEVELOPMENT; WETLAND;

BRITISH COLUMBIA; CANADA; NORTH AMERICA; VANCOUVER;

EID: 27844528843     PISSN: 07030428     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.7202/1016044ar     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. The phrases "hidden treasure" and "ancient wonder" are from information boards posted at the site.
2. V. J. Krajina, "Biogeoclimatic Zones and the Classification of British Columbia," Ecology of Western North America 2, no. 1 (1969): 148-168.
3. G. K. Kiss, "Pollen Analysis of Postglacial Peat Deposit in Vancouver" (master's thesis, University of British Columbia, 1961);
4. Audrey F. Pearson, "Peat Stratigraphy, Palynology and Plant Succession in Camosun Bog" (undergraduate thesis, University of British Columbia, 1983);
5. but see also Richard J. Hebda, "Paleoecology of a Raised Bog, Burns Bog, British Columbia" (doctoral thesis, University of British Columbia, 1977),
6. and R. W. Mathewes, "Paleoecology of Postglacial Sediment in the Fraser Lowland Region of British Columbia" (doctoral thesis, University of British Columbia, 1973), for other deep cores.
7. Sarah Howie, "A Look at Burns Bog," Davidsonia 13, no. 4 (October 2002): 82.
8. See also Hebda, "Paleoecology of a Raised Bog."
9. For a general account see E. C. Pielou, After the Ice: The Return of Life to Glaciated North America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
10. More detailed studies are H. P. Hansen, "Postglacial Forest Succession, Climate and Chronology in the Pacific Northwest," Transactions, American Philosophical Society, Part 1 (1947): 1-130,
11. and R. W. Matthewes, "A Palynological Study of Postglacial Vegetation Changes in the University Research Forest, Southwestern British Columbia," Canadian Journal of Botany 51 (1973): 2085-2103,
12. and R. W. Mathewes, "Paleobotanical Evidence for Climate Change in Southern British Columbia during the Late-Glacial and Holocene Time," in Climate Change in Canada 5: Critical Periods in the Quaternary Climatic History of Northern North America, ed., C. R. Harrington, Syllogeus 55 (1985): 397-422.
13. Broad patterns of vegetation change are mapped in Cole Harris, ed., Historical Atlas of Canada, vol. 1, From the Beginning to 1800 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987).
14. There are neither surveys nor good descriptions of the lake/swamp/bog before the late-eighteenth century. Our estimates here are based on field survey, the interpretation of later aerial photographs and topographic maps, and botanical studies of the bog. Indigenous people knew the low, wet ground of this area as mukwaam ("swampy place"), the lake at its centre as khahtsulek ("lake at the head"), and the stream that drained south from this area as nough khahtsulek stalo ("lake head creek"). See Bruce Macdonald, Vancouver: A Visual History (Vancouver: Talonbooks, 1992).
15. Such areas are known technically as oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) and ombrotrophic (precipitation-dependent) environments.
16. Nico van Breeman, "How Sphagnum Bogs Down Other Plants," Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10, no. 7 (July 1995): 273.
17. H. A. P. Ingram, "Soil Layers in Mires: Function and Terminology," Journal of Soil Science 29 (1978): 224-227;
18. K. E. Ivanov, Water Movement in Mirelands (London: Academic Press, 1981).
19. J. G. Gosselink and R. E. Turner, "The Role of Hydrology in Freshwater Wetland Systems," in Freshwater Wetlands, eds. R. I. Good, D. F. Whigham, and R. I. Simpson (New York: Academic, 1978), 63-78.
20. The classic and highly mathematical work is by Ivanov, Water Movement in Mirelands.
21. See also Dan Charman, Peatlands and Environmental Change (Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 2002): 35-38,
22. and H. A. P. Ingram, "Size and Shape in Raised Mire Ecosystems: A Geophysical Model," Nature 297 (1982): 300-303, for a more accessible account.
23. For a brief summary see chap. 2, sec. 2.3.2, in Richard J. Hebda, Kent Gustavson, Karen Golinski, and Alan M. Calder, Burns Bog Ecosystem Review, http://www.eao.gov.bc.ca/epic/output/documents/p60/ 1036434231789_16af42884ae64e0f855 3d621be48be92.pdf.
24. van Breeman, "How Sphagnum Bogs," 271.
25. Kiss, "Pollen Analysis," and Audrey F. Pearson, Ecology of Camosun Bog and Recommendations for Restoration (Technical Paper #3, University Endowment Lands/Forest Park Research, Burnaby, BC, UBC Technical Committee on the Endowment Lands and GVRD Parks Department, 1985): 109-113.
26. van Breeman, "How Sphagnum Bogs."
27. Geoffrey A. J. Scott, Canada's Vegetation: A World Perspective (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995), 218-224.
28. Howie, "Burns Bog," Jim Pojar and Andy MacKinnon, Plants of Coastal British Columbia (Edmonton: Lone Pine, 1994).
29. Pearson, Ecology, 138.
30. For a detailed account of these developments, and the sources of quotes, see Graeme Wynn, "The Rise of Vancouver," in Vancouver and Its Region, eds. Graeme Wynn and Timothy Oke (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1992), 69-101.
31. Details in this and the immediately following paragraphs about timber leases and surveys of the area are from records held by the Department of Timber Harvesting, BC Ministry of Forests, Victoria. Photocopies of records pertaining to timber sales, for the decade or so after the establishment of the Forest Branch in 1912, in the area that became the University Endowment Lands in 1923, were made by the GVRD and are reported in part in Gabrielle Kahrer, A Mosaic of Destinies, A Mosaic of Landscapes: The History of Pacific Spirit Park, 1860s to 1950s (Burnaby, BC: GVRD, 1991), 30-37, but neither photocopies nor originals could be located in 2004-2005.
32. Timber Sale X788, November 1916, cited in Kahrer, Mosaic, p. 36.
33. Accounts of the fire can be found in the Vancouver Daily World, 16 July, 17 July 1919;
34. Vancouver Daily Sun, 16 July, 17 July 1919;
35. Daily Province, 17 July 1919;
36. Weekly Gazette and Home News, 19 July 1919.
37. Pearson, Ecology, 109-138.
38. M. J. Jull, "A Hydrological and Biogeochemical Investigation of Accelerated Forest Succession in Camosun Bog" (undergraduate thesis, University of British Columbia, 1983).
39. In 1911, Vancouver, Point Grey, South Vancouver, and Burnaby hired Montreal sanitary engineer R. S. Lea to plan a sewage and drainage system for the peninsula. His 1913 report advocated construction of separate sewage and stormwater drainage systems. It led to the establishment of the Vancouver and Districts Joint Sewerage and Drainage Board in 1914. But financial constraints steered this body toward the development of combined collector sewers that routed sewage and stormwater into neighbouring waters such as the Fraser River and English Bay. See A. Keeling, "Sink or Swim: Water Pollution and Environmental Politics in Vancouver, 1889-1975," in "On the Environment," special issue, BC Studies 142/143 (Summer/Fall 2004): 69-101,
40. and A. Keeling, "The Effluent Society: Water Pollution and Environmental Politics in British Columbia, 1889-1980" (PhD diss., University of British Columbia, 2004), for more details.
41. In the preparation of maps 4a to 4f, thirteen vertical aerial photographs of the Camosun Bog area made between 1930 and 2004 were scanned and geographically referenced to the City of Vancouver 2004 digital street centrelines data (UTM, NAD83). Six were selected to chart the transformation of the bog between 1920 and 1999. The outline of the bog mapped in figure 4a is clearly visible on the 1930 air photo; this outline was digitized, classified as open bog, and used as the basis for mapping the changes in the bog revealed in figures 4b to 4f. For 1938, 1946, 1959, 1974, and 1999 the vegetation on the original bog was classified as open bog, scrub (low scattered trees, brush), or bog forest. Vegetation classification was verified by an inventory forester using stereo pairs of photos, where available. Fill (including later streets), the BC Hydro line, and other details were added from evidence in air photos and other maps and documents of the period. The GIS procedure entailed laying a 10 by 10-metre grid on the digital air photo image, classifying each cell (as open bog, scrub, etc.), dissolving cell boundaries between identical classifications, and manually smoothing the boundaries. The spread of housing on land adjoining the bog, represented as "occupied parcels," was mapped using BC Assessment Authority Data, verified by cross-checking against information in city directories. The outline of the lake in Figure 4a is an approximation based on careful evaluation of small-scale topographic maps and detailed field reconnaissance in the vicinity of the bog. Camosun Bog area made between 1930 and 2004 were scanned and geographically referenced to the City of Vancouver 2004 digital street centrelines data (UTM, NAD83). Six were selected to chart the transformation of the bog between 1920 and 1999. The outline of the bog mapped in figure 4a is clearly visible on the 1930 air photo; this outline was digitized, classified as open bog, and used as the basis for mapping the changes in the bog revealed in figures 4b to 4f. For 1938, 1946, 1959, 1974, and 1999 the vegetation on the original bog was classified as open bog, scrub (low scattered trees, brush), or bog forest. Vegetation classification was verified by an inventory forester using stereo pairs of photos, where available. Fill (including later streets), the BC Hydro line, and other details were added from evidence in air photos and other maps and documents of the period. The GIS procedure entailed laying a 10 by 10-metre grid on the digital air photo image, classifying each cell (as open bog, scrub, etc.), dissolving cell boundaries between identical classifications, and manually smoothing the boundaries. The spread of housing on land adjoining the bog, represented as "occupied parcels," was mapped using BC Assessment Authority Data, verified by cross-checking against information in city directories. The outline of the lake in Figure 4a is an approximation based on careful evaluation of small-scale topographic maps and detailed field reconnaissance in the vicinity of the bog.
42. Most details of this story and more information on much of what follows are to be found in General files, UEL Collection, UBC Archives. Summary treatments can also be found in Kahrer, Mosaic, and in A. Klassen and Jan Teversham, Exploring the UBC Endowment Lands (North Vancouver: J. J. Douglas, 1977).
43. Cole Harris, "Locating the University of British Columbia," BC Studies 32 (Winter 1976-1977): 106-125.
44. H. L. McPherson, "The Planning of the University Endowment Lands, Vancouver, British Columbia," Town Planning 6 (1926): 5-18;
45. Alfred Buckley, "Planning the British Columbia University Endowment Lands: A Great Town Planning Scheme for Western Canada," Town Planning 6 (Dec. 1926): 2-4, available in General files 1-7, UEL Collection, UBC Archives;
46. Kahrer, Mosaic, 40-41.
47. Kahrer, Mosaic, 46-48.
48. "Polio: The Final Assault," Science 303 (26 Mar. 2004): 1961.
49. Vancouver Province, 6 June, 17 June, 21 June 1952.
50. Ibid., 11 June 1952.
51. Ibid.
52. Vancouver Province, 4 June 1952.
53. Vancouver Sun, 24 July 1952,
54. Vancouver Province, 18 June 1952.
55. Vancouver Sun, 18 July, 19 July, 24 July 1952.
56. Ibid., 25 July 1953;
57. definition of sandhogs, from http://www.albany.edu/history/collison.html.
58. Vancouver Sun, 6 Oct. 1953.
59. Piteau Associates, Hydrogeological Assessment of the Camosun Bog, Pacific Spirit Regional Park, Vancouver, British Columbia, Phase II (Report to Parks Department, Greater Vancouver Regional District, Burnaby British Columbia, 1991).
60. Piteau Associates, Hydrogeological Assessment, 6-7. Later, efforts were made to seal the holes in the upper part of this borehole.
61. For succinct accounts of the high modernist ethos and its implications, see Paul R. Josephson, Industrialized Nature: Brute Force Technology and the Transformation of the Natural World (Washington: Island, 2002),
62. and James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes To Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998).
63. Tina Loo, "People in the Way: Modernity, Environment, and Society on the Arrow Lakes," in "On the Environment," special issue, BC Studies 142/143 (Summer/Fall 2004): 161-196, offers a useful account.
64. D. B. Turner, University Endowment Lands - Master Plan Survey, Dec. 1956, box 1, 1-10, General files, UEL Collection, UBC Archive; and Description of the Collection, UEL Collection, UBC Archives.
65. UEL Collection, UBC Archives;
66. Kahrer, Mosaic, 52-53;
67. Vancouver Sun, 12 Dec. 1988.
68. Jull, "Hydrological and Biogeochemical Investigation," 30-39. There are no measurements of water-table heights ca. 1920, but the implication here is that the situation in Camosun Bog was similar to that in other undisturbed bog environments.
69. Jull, "Hydrological and Biogeochemical Investigation," 40-44.
70. W. D. Husby, Camosun Bog Restoration Monitoring Report, 1990/91 (Report to GVRD Parks Department, West Area, 1991), 23-26.
71. Reginald Brick, "A Study of the Growth and Succession of the Camosun Bog Forest" (undergraduate thesis, University of British Columbia, 1979), 49, which also notes the gall rust.
72. Ibid., 50.
73. For the Greenpeace story, see Frank Zelko, "Making Greenpeace: The Development of Direct Action Environmentalism in British Columbia," in "On the Environment," special issue, BC Studies 142/143 (Summer/Fall 2004): 197-239,
74. and for the rise of other environmental groups in Vancouver see Keeling, "Effluent Society," 273-346.
75. Endowment Lands Regional Park Committee, "Submission to the Government of British Columbia, December 1974," box 1, General files 1-23, UEL Collection, UBC Archives;
76. Heather Persons, "University Endowment Lands: We would rather see higher density housing around the park than medium density all over it," Vancouver Leisure Magazine 7, no. 5 (May 1974): 15-16;
77. Point Grey Action Group of Canadian Scientific Pollution and Environmental Control Society, "Proposal for Preserving the University Endowment Lands as Park," box 1, General files 1-20, UEL Collection, UBC Archives;
78. Adrian Belshaw, "A Proposal for the Future of the University Endowment Lands, prepared for UBC Student Council" (September 1971), box 1, General files 1-17, UEL Collection, UBC Archives;
79. Dunbar-West Point Grey Endowment Lands Committee, "Brief Requesting the Preservation of the University Endowment Lands as Parkland and Green Belt" (Nov. 1973), box 1, General files 1-21, UEL Collection;
80. Carmen R. Rida, "The Preservation of Urban Woodlands: A Case Study of the University Endowment Lands" (master's thesis, University of British Columbia, 1988).
81. Personal communication, conversation of GW with Dr. V. Brink, Jan. 2005;
82. and N. Baker, P. Lilley. T. Sasaki, and H. Williamson, "Investigation of Options for the Restoration of Camosun Bog, Pacific Spirit Regional Park" (UBC Environmental Studies 400 thesis, Apr. 2000), 53.
83. Persons, "University Endowment Lands";
84. Anonymous, "The University Endowment Lands ... Somewhere between a Park and a Parking Lot," Westworld 1, no. 2 (Mar.-Apr. 1975): 49.
85. This area, known temporarily as Frank Buck Memorial Park, encompassed most of the southeastern section of what later became Pacific Spirit Park. The ecological reserve encompassed a blue-heron breeding ground but did not include Camosun Bog. The eastern boundary of the proposed park appears to have followed the line of Camosun Street, also the original boundary between the City of Vancouver and the UEL. For a map, see Macdonald, Vancouver, 58-59.
86. Michael Hough, Cities and Natural Process (London and New York: Routledge, 1995), xvi, 5.
87. GVRD, A Regional Park for the Endowment Lands (1980) was based on extensive public consultation and co-operation with the Endowment Lands Regional Park Committee.
88. Important studies undertaken under the guidance of this subcommittee include G. G. Catt, "Foliar Analysis of Western Hemlock and Lodgepole Pine in Camosun Bog: Nutritional Status Interpretation and Correlation with Groundwater Chemistry" (undergraduate thesis, University of British Columbia, 1983);
89. Jull, "Hydrological and Biogeochemical Investigation";
90. J. Marowitch, "A Study of Soil Water Levels and Water Chemistry in Camosun Bog" (undergraduate thesis, University of British Columbia 1982);
91. Pearson, "Peat Stratigraphy, Palynology";
92. and W. W. Smith, "Ecological Considerations Concerning the Rehabilitation of Camosun Bog with Reference to Recreation" (master's thesis, University of British Columbia, 1983).
93. M. A. Comeau, Vegetation Classification and Ordination of Camosun Bog in the University Endowment Lands (GVRD Parks Department, 1983);
94. A. F. Pearson, Camosun Bog Endowment Lands, Vancouver (GVRD Parks Department, 1984);
95. Pearson, Ecology;
96. Grant A. Thompson, Vegetation Classification of the Endowment Lands (Technical paper #4, UBC Technical Committee on the Endowment Lands/ GVRD Parks Department, 1985).
97. Hough, Cities, xvi.
98. Indeed, the enthusiasm for environmental restoration gained enormous momentum across North America at about this time. Although the first systematic attempt to restore a piece of North American land is generally said to have made in 1934, at Curtis Prairie under the auspices of the Arboretum of the University of Wisconsin, and to have been inspired by Aldo Leopold, the movement was slow to gain popular support. See Dave Egan, "Historic Initiatives in Ecological Restoration," Restoration & Management Notes 8, no. 2 (1990): 83-90;
99. Matthias Gross, Inventing Nature: Ecological Restoration by Public Experiments (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2003);
100. R. J. Hobbs and D. A. Norton, "Towards a Conceptual Framework for Restoration Ecology," Restoration Ecology 4, no. 2 (1996): 93-110;
101. William R. Jordan 3rd, The Sunflower Forest: Ecological Restoration and the New Communion with Nature (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003);
102. and Z. Naveh, "Ecological and Cultural Landscape Restoration and the Cultural Evolution towards a Post-Industrial Symbiosis between Human Society and Nature," Restoration Ecology 6, no. 2 (1998): 135-43.
103. The Musqueam Indian Band, The UEL Park and the Musqueam Band: The Real Story (Apr. 1989), box 2, General files 2-11, UEL Collection, UBC Special Collections, also available as Spam 7308;
104. Delbert Guerin, Musqueam Aboriginal Rights to the University Endowment Lands (Vancouver: Musqueam Band, 1977), Spam 239, UBC Special Collections;
105. Vancouver Sun, 24 June, 3 July 1987, 3 Jan., 6 Apr., 21 Apr. 1989. The eastern boundary of the park was extended in 1989 to Crown Street. The city conceded a small parcel of land (said to be worth $7 million) that the sewer excavations of 1953 had shown to be unfit for development. A small additional area in the vicinity of King Edward Avenue appears to have been attached to or assumed by the park at this time.
106. Prepared by A. F. Pearson, J. P. Kimmins, and G. E. Rouse, this is included as Appendix 2 of D. Watmough and A. Pearson, Camosun Bog, Summary Report (Greater Vancouver Regional District, Parks Department, 1990). The appendix is dated June 1989, although the Summary Report attributes it to April.
107. Pearson, Kimmins, and Rouse, Proposal, 26.
108. At least by some accounts. A more prosaic story offered by Husby, Camosun Bog, 4, is that Richmond Nature Park staff had already attempted sphagnum transplantation, and that Vancouver Natural History Society and UBC personnel were advocating that "sphagnum milkshakes" (shredded sphagnum in water) be poured on suitable areas to promote regrowth, in addition to advocating transplantation.
109. These developments are reported in Laurence Brown, Terry Taylor, and Brian Woodcock, "The Restoration of Camosun Bog," Discovery 28 (1999): 27-32,
110. and Laurence Brown, "The Camosun Test Bog, 1997-2000" (unpublished paper provided by the author). As Brown notes, the test bog project was suggested by Sue-Ellen Fast of GVRD and Hamish Kimmins of the Faculty of Forestry at UBC.
111. See also Laura C. Chessor, "Restoration of Camosun Bog" (undergraduate thesis, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, 1999).
112. This was an outcome congruent with observations of naturally occurring bogs that show sphagnum succeeding best at levels five to fifteen centimetres above the mean water table. This implies that prolonged submersion (for more than some 165 days per annum) is detrimental to most species of sphagnum. L. D. Gignac, "Distribution of Sphagnum Species, Communities and Habitats in Relation to Climate," Advances in Bryology 5 (1993): 187.
113. Brown, Taylor, and Woodcock, "The Restoration," 32.
114. These "ecological" and other services are discussed at slightly greater length in Baker, Lilley, Sasaki, and Williamson, "Investigation of Options," which comes close to framing the history of the bog as tragedy.
115. Echoes of this story appear in Brown, Taylor, and Woodcock, "The Restoration."
116. These examples derive from Robert Elliot, "Faking Nature," Inquiry 25 (1982): 81-93.
117. The argument is elaborated in his Faking Nature: The Ethics of Environmental Restoration (London: Routledge, 1997).
118. The pages of the journal Restoration Ecology, published by the Society for Ecological Restoration, are one measure of the complexity. The quotation exemplifying the more straightforward view is from C. J. Stevens, review of The Sunflower Forest, by William R. Jordan 3rd, Environment and History 11, no. 1 (2005): 101.
119. Aldo Leopold quoted by Curt Meine in "Foreword," The Historical Ecology Handbook: A Restorationist's Guide to Reference Ecosystems, eds. Dave Egan and Evelyn A. Howell (Washington: Island, 2001), xv-xix.
120. Surveys of public opinion were conducted by Pearson, Ecology, in 1985 and by Baker, Lilley, Sasaki, and Williamson, "Investigation," in 2000. Both reported high levels of support for restoration of the bog. The concern about mosquitoes is noted in Baker, Lilley, Sasaki, and Williamson, "Investigation,"
121. The James quote is taken from Eric Katz, "The Big Lie: Human Restoration of Nature," Research in Philosophy and Technology 12 (1992): 231-242.
122. The quotations are drawn from summaries of these positions in Eric Higgs, "Designing, Not Faking, Nature," in Helping the Land Heal: Ecological Restoration in British Columbia, ed. Brian Egan (Vancouver: BC Environmental Network Educational Foundation, 1999), 34.
123. See also Elliot, "Faking Nature";
124. Katz, "The Big Lie";
125. and Eric Katz, "The Call of the Wild," Environmental Ethics 14, no. 3 (1992): 265-273.
126. A useful collection of relevant essays is William Throop, ed., Environmental Restoration: Ethics, Theory and Practice (Amherst, NY: Humanity, 2000).
127. Jack Temple Kirby, "Gardening with J. Crew: The Political Ecology of Restoration Ecology," in Beyond Preservation: Restoring and Inventing Landscapes, eds. A. Dwight Baldwin Jr., Judith DeLuce, and Carl Pietsch (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), 234-240, quote from 240.
128. Eric Higgs, Nature by Design: People, Natural Process and Ecological Restoration (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003), 269.
129. W. McKibben, The End of Nature (New York: Random House, 1989).
130. Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1991);
131. Bruno Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993).
132. Daniel Botkin, Discordant Harmonies: A New Ecology for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 62.
133. Quotes are from Richard White, "The New Western History and the National Parks," George Wright Forum 13, no. 3 (1996): 31.
134. But for the most controversial articulation of this position, see William Cronon, "The Trouble with Wilderness, or Getting Back to the Wrong Nature," in Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, ed. William Cronon (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), 69-90.
135. Yet not everyone embraced these developments. See the series of articles by Gary Snyder, Dave Foreman, Don Walker, and others grouped under the title "Opposing Wilderness Deconstruction," in Wild Earth (Winter 1996/ 97): 8-82.
136. For further debate on this issue see essays in M. Soulé and G. Lease, eds., Reinventing Nature: Responses to Postmodern Deconstructionism (Washington DC: Island, 1995).
137. In echo, for example, of Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984).
138. Higgs, Nature by Design, 288.
139. Ibid., 184, 49.
140. Ibid., 157, 226, and passim.
141. See Stephanie Mills, In Service of the Wild: Restoring and Reinhabiting Damaged Land (Boston: Beacon, 1995).
142. For an outline of the Social Capital argument, see Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000),
143. and Robert D. Putnam and Lewis Feldstein, with Don Cohen, Better Together: Restoring the American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2003).
144. David Strong cited by Higgs, Nature by Design, 246.
145. Higgs, Nature by Design, 153, 22.
146. We are indebted to Curt Meine, "Foreword," for the core of this paragraph, including the quotations from Williams and Leopold. The Blake reference is to his "Auguries of Innocence," in Poems from the Pickering Manuscript, ca. 1805.