The Bakhtiyari tribes in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution

Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East

Volumn 25, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 377-398

  Khazeni, Arash ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONSTITUTIONAL REFORM; ETHNOPOLITICS;

ASIA; EASTERN HEMISPHERE; EURASIA; IRAN; MIDDLE EAST; WORLD;

EID: 27744594515     PISSN: 1089201X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/1089201X-25-2-377     Document Type: Review

References (243)

1. Times (London), 5 July 1909.
2. 'Ali Quli Khan Sardar As'ad and 'Abdul Husayn Lisan al-Saltanah Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari (History of the Bakhtiyari) (1915; Tehran: Initisharat-i Asatir, AH 1376 [1997], 182;
3. Edward G. Browne, The Persian Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910), 315;
4. Times, 14 July 1909.
5. Times, 15 July 1909;
6. Browne, The Persian Revolution, 319-21.
7. Habl al-Matin (Firm Rope) (Calcutta), 13 September 1909. "Millat-i azad kard junbish-i khish ashkar/hami-yi millat risid ba sipah-i Bakhtiyar" ("The Nation Rebelled/The Friends of the Nation Arrived with the Cavalries of Bakhtiyar").
8. Habl al-Matin, 5 July 1909.
9. Browne, The Persian Revolution, 266.
10. Iraj Afshar, Mubarizih ba Muhammad 'Ali Shah (Resistance against Muhammad 'Ali Shah) (Tehran: Tus, AH 1360 [1981]), 74, document 31.
11. David Fraser, Persia and Turkey in Revolt (Edinburgh: W. Blackwood, 1910).
12. Morgan Shuster, The Strangling of Persia (New York, Century, 1912), 115-16.
13. See Browne, The Persian Revolution;
14. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari;
15. Nurallah Danishwar 'Alawi, Tarikh-i Iran wa jumbish-i watan parastan-i isfahan wa Bakhtiyari (The History of Iran and the Uprising of the Patriots of Isfahan and Bakhtiyari) (Tehran: Kitabkhana-yi Danish, AH 1335 [1956]);
16. Mahdi Malikzada, Tarikh-i Inqilab-i Mashrutiyat-i Iran (History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution), 7 vols. (Tehran: Intisharat-i llmi, AH 1363 [1984];
17. Isfandiar Ahanjidah, Bakhtiyari wa Mashruta (The Bakhtiyari and the Constitution) (Arak: Intisharat-i Zari-bin, AH 1374 [1995]).
18. In the pioneering work Khans and Shahs: A Documentary Analysis of the Bakhtiyari in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), Gene Garthwaite describes the Bakhtiyari khans during the constitutional revolution as conservative nationalists, likening them to the ulama class. Others have noted Bakhtiyari connections to the liberal Persia Committee in London;
19. see Mansour Bonakdarian, "Iranian Constitutional Exiles and British Foreign Policy Dissenters, 1908-1909," International Journal of Middle East Studies 27 (1995): 175-91.
20. In The Strangling of Persia (New York: Century, 1912), Morgan Shuster suggests that the Bakhtiyari tribesmen in Tehran were out to plunder the treasury and that they wreaked havoc and were among the enemies of the constitutional movement for giving in to the Russian ultimatum.
21. See Sarhang 'Abu'l Fath Uzhan Bakhtiyari, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari (History of the Bakhtiyari) (Tehran: Majala'-i Wahid, AH 1346 [1967]), 176. Noting that the constitutional revolution coincided with the exploration for oil at Masjid-i Sulaiman, 'Abu'l Fath Uzhan, a Bakhtiyari historian, suggested that the ruling khans' acceptance of a 3 percent instead of a 10 percent share of the D'Arcy Oil Company was based on the British promise that they would back the tribe in the revolution.
22. See also Mahdi Bamdad, Sharh-i Hal-i Rijal-i Iran dar Qarn-i Dawazdah, Sizdah, Chahardah Hijri (The Life and Times of the Distinguished Men of Iran in the Twelfth, Thirteenth, and Fourteenth Hijri Centuries) (Tehran, AH 1357 [1978]), 2: 451.
23. For other accounts of British influence on the Bakhtiyari during the constitutional period, see Firuz Kazemzadah, Russia and Britain in Persia, 1864-1914 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968);
24. Ira Klein, "British Intervention in the Persian Revolution, 1905-1909," Historical Journal 15 (1972): 731-52.
25. For some brief examples of the loyalty of the Bakhtiyari sawars to Sardar As'ad and the khans on the road to Tehran in 1909, see Hajj Sayyah, Khatirat-i Sayyah (Memoirs of Hajj Sayyah) (Tehran: Kitabkhana-i Ibn Sina, AH 1346 [1967]), 612.
26. The place of ordinary people in national events has been examined in French and South Asian historiography. For France, see works by Richard Cobb on the sans culottes, including Les armees revolutionnaires (The Revolutionary Armies) (Paris: Mouton, 1961-63);
27. The Police and the People: French Popular Protest, 1789-1820 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970);
28. Reactions to the French Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972);
29. and Paris and Its Provinces, 1792-1802 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975).
30. For South Asia see early works by the Subaltern School, including Ranajit Guha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999 [1983]);
31. and Shahid Amin, "Ghandi as Mahatma: Gorakhpur District, Eastern UP, 1921-1922," Subaltern Studies (Delhi), vol. 3 (1984);
32. and Amin's Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992 (Berkeley: University of California Pres, 1995).
33. See, e.g., Garthwaite, Khans and Shahs, 96-144;
34. and Garthwaite, "The Bakhtiyari Khans, the Government of Iran, and the British, 1846-1915," International Journal of Middle East Studies 3 (1972): 24-44.
35. See also R. W. Ferrier, A History of the British Petroleum Company, vol. 1, The Developing Years, 1901-1932 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
36. D. L. R. Lorimer, The Phonology of the Bakhtiyari, Badakhshani, and Madaglashti Dialects of Modern Persian (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1922), 6-7.
37. For the Bakhtiyari and Riza Shah, see Stephanie Cronin, "Riza Shah and the Disintegration of Bakhtiyari Power in Iran, 1921-1934," in The Making of Modern Iran: State and Society under Riza Shah, 1921-1941, ed. Cronin (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), 241-68.
38. In other fields of Asian history, the project of recovering the struggles of peripheral social groups or subalterns in nationalist movements has been more thoroughly explored, although such studies have recently been questioned. In Provincializing Europe, Dipesh Chakrabarty has suggested that Indian historiography has only recovered the history of subalterns through master narratives invoking the nation-state. Chakrabarty has called for a history that traces the ambivalences and contradictions that attend modernization and development: "a history that does not yet exist," but one that will provincialize or "see the modern as inevitably contested." Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), 42-46.
39. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari.
40. Iskandar Khan 'Akasha, Tarikh-i ll-i Bakhtiyari (History of the Bakhtiyari Tribe) (Tehran: Intisharat-i Farhangsara, AH 1365 [1986]);
41. Khusraw Khan Sardar Zafar, "Waqayi Nagufti az Inqilab-i Mashrutiyat: Khatirat wa Asnad" ("Untold Events from the Constitutional Revolution: Memoirs and Documents"), in Khatirat wa Asnad (Memoirs and Documents) (Tehran: Intisharat-i Wahid, AH 1368 [1989]);
42. Uzhan, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari;
43. Bibi Maryam Bakhtiyari, Khatirat-i Sardar Maryam: Az Kudaki ta Aqaz-i Inqilab-i Mashrutah (The Memoirs of Sardar Maryam: From Childhood to the Beginning of the Revolution) (Tehran: Intisharat-i Anzan, AH 1382 [2003]).
44. 'Akasha, Tarikh-i ll-i Bakhtiyari, 589.
45. Browne, The Persian Revolution;
46. Fraser, Persia and Turkey;
47. Shuster, The Strangling of Persia.
48. On the Bakhtiyari in the Qajar period, see Ghulam Riza Darrihshuri, Bakhtiyariha wa Qajariyah (The Bakhtiyaris and the Qajars) (Shahr Kurd: Intisharat-i II, AH 1373 [1994]);
49. Garthwaite, Khans and Shahs;
50. Richard Tapper, "The Tribes in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Iran," in The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 7, From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 506-41.
51. Gustave Demorgny, Essai sur l'administration de la Perse; lessons faites a la classe imperiale et a ecole des sciences de Teheran, 1912-1913 (Essay on the Administration of Persia: Lessons Taught at the Imperial Class and at the School of Sciences of Teheran, 1912-1913) (Paris: Mission Scientifigue du Maroc, 1913), 8.
52. Also see Demorgny, "Les reformes administratives en Perse: Les Tribus du Fars" ("Administrative Reforms in Persia: The Tribes of Fars"), Reveue du monde musulman (Paris) 22 (1913): 91. Demorgny, a French professor at the School of Political Science in Tehran and a jurisconsult of the Persian Government, 1912-13, was commissioned by the Ministry of the Interior to devise a plan for readministering the province of Fars. Plans were also underway for a council of tribes to be established in Tehran to further the prospect of pacification and national unity.
53. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 82.
54. For Najm al-Mulk's account of his travels, see Hajji Mirza 'Abd al-Ghaffar Najm al-Mulk, Safarnamah-i Khuzistan (Travelogue of Khuzistan) (Tehran: Intisharat-i Ilmi, AH 1341 [1962]).
55. Mas'ud Mirza Zill al-Sultan, Tarikh-i Sarguzasht-i Mas'udi (History of the Recollections of Mas'ud Mirza) (Tehran: Intisharat-i Asatir, AH 1368 [1989]), 2:526-27.
56. On the death of Husayn Quli Khan Ilkhani, see Sardar Zafar, Yaddashtha wa Khatirat (Notebooks and Memoirs) (Tehran: Intisharat-i Farhangsara, AH 1362 [1983]), 194-209;
57. 'Akasha, Tarikh-i Il-i Bakkhtiyar-i, 183-90;
58. Garthwaite, Khans and Shahs, 89-95.
59. Abbas Amanat, Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831-1896 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 409.
60. Garthwaite, Khans and Shahs, 186.
61. For a brief biography of Sardar As'ad, see Sa'idi Sirjani, "Haji Aliqoli Khan Sardar Asad Baktiari," Encyclopaedia Iranica (New York: Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation), 3: 543-48.
62. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 472-74;
63. Sirjani, "Haji Ali-qoli Khan Sardar Asad Baktiari," 543.
64. The tribal school, which may have played a role in inculcating modern values and literacy among the youth of the tribe, employed Shaykh 'Ali Tazi and brought in several teachers from Tehran to educate the children of the khans. Malikzada, Tarikh-i Ingilab-i Mashrutiyat-i Iran, 1:121 and 6:1079.
65. Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 76-79.
66. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 177.
67. Mukhbir al-Saltana Hidayat, Khatirat wa Khatarat (Memories and Perils), (Tehran: Zawar, AH 1363 [1984], 181.
68. Ibid.
69. Bonakdarian, "Iranian Constitutional Exiles and British Foreign-Policy Dissenters," 186;
70. Janet Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911: Grassroots Democracy, Social Democracy, and the Origins of Feminism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 231.
71. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 464.
72. Iran Political Diaries, 1881-1965, vol. 3, 1906-1907, ed. R. M. Burrell and Robert L. Jarman (London: Archive Editions, 1997), 343.
73. D. L. R. Lorimer to Consul at Isfahan, Ardal, 5 June 1907, Great Britain, Public Record Office (Kew), Foreign Office [F. O.] Records Series 248/923, D'Arcy Oil Syndicate (1907-1908).
74. Dr. M. S. P. Aganoor to Charles M. Marling, Isfahan, 3 July 1908, F. O. 248/937, Isfahan (1908).
75. Arnold Talbot Wilson, Military Report on S. W. Persia, vol. 1, Bakhtiyari Garmsir (Simla: Government Monotype Press, 1909), 16.
76. Dr. Aganoor to George Barclay, Isfahan, 24 October 1908, F. O. 248/937.
77. For the animosity between Sardar Zafar and Samsam al-Saltana, sons of Husyan Quli Khan born to different mothers, see Sardar Zafar, "Waqayi Nagufti az Inqilab-i Mashrutiyat," 192-207.
78. Malikzada, Tarikh-i Inqilab-i Mashrutiyat-i Iran, 6:1082.
79. 'Akasha, Tarikh-i Il-i Bakhtiyari, 587.
80. Ibid.
81. 'Akasha, Tarikh-i Il-i Bakhtiyari, 588.
82. Ibid., 589.
83. Malikzada, Tarikh-i Inqilab-i Mashrutiyat-i Iran, 6: 1083.
84. Hajj Sayyah, Khatirat, 212.
85. 'Alawi, Tarikh-i Inqilab-i Mashrutah wa Junbish-i Watan Parastan-i Isfahan wa Bakhtiyari, 24-41;
86. Ahanjidah, Il-i Bakhtiyari wa Mashrutiyat, 117-18.
87. Ahanjidah, Il-i Bakhtiyari wa Mashrutiyat, 120.
88. Uzhan, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 201-2.
89. Elizabeth MacBean Ross, A Lady Doctor in Bakhtiari Land (London: Leonard Parsons, 1921), 42-43.
90. Hajj Sayyah, Khatirat, 612.
91. 'Alawi, Tarikh-i Inqilab-i Mashrutah wa Junbish-i Watan Parastan-i Isfahan wa Bakhtiyari, 24-41;
92. Ahanjidah, Il-i Bakhtiyari wa Mashrutiyat, 120.
93. Grahame to Barclay, Isfahan, 2 January 1909, F. O. 248/965, Isfahan (1909).
94. Karim Nikzad, Shinakht-i Sarzamin-i Bakhtiyari (Knowing the Bakhtiyari Land) (Isfahan: Nashat, AH 1354 [1975]), 211.
95. Malikzada, Tarikh-i Inqilab-i Mashrutiyat-i Iran, 6:1088.
96. Isfahan News, 4 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
97. Grahame to Sir G. Barclay, Isfahan, n.d., January 1909, F. O. 248/965;
98. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 451-52.
99. Grahame to Barclay, Number 1, Isfahan, 3 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
100. Grahame to Barclay, Number 3, Isfahan, 3 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
101. Grahame to Barclay, Isfahan, 3 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
102. Barclay to Mr. Grahame, Tehran, 5 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
103. Barclay to Mr. Grahame, Tehran, 7 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
104. Browne, The Persian Revolution, 266.
105. Grahame to Barclay, Isfahan, January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
106. Ibid.
107. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 454;
108. Browne, The Persian Revolution, 266;
109. Grahame to Barclay, Isfahan, 8 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
110. Fraser, Turkey and Persia in Revolt, 199.
111. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 455-56;
112. Grahame to Barclay, Isfahan, 23 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
113. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 456-57.
114. Malikzada, Tarikh-i Inqilab-i Mashrutiyat-i Iran, 6: 1090.
115. Ibid., 1091.
116. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 456.
117. Grahame to Barclay, Tehran, 7 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
118. 'Akasha, Tarikh-i Il-i Bakhtiyari, 587-93;
119. Khusraw Khan Sardar Zafar, "Waqayi Nagufti az Inqilab-i Mashrutiyat," 205.
120. Grahame to Barclay, Isfahan News, 23 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
121. Grahame to Barclay, Tehran, 9 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
122. G. Barclay to Mr. Grahame, Tehran, 7 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
123. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 592.
124. Grahame to Barclay, Isfahan News, 30 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
125. Malikzada, Tarikh-i Inqilab-i Mashrutiyat-i Iran, 6:1093-94.
126. Ibid.
127. Grahame to Barclay, Isfahan News, 30 February 1909, F. O. 248/965.
128. Times, 29 January 1909.
129. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 179-80.
130. 'Akasha, Tarikh-i Il-i Bakhtiyari, 596;
131. Browne, The Persian Revolution, 298.
132. Browne, The Persian Revolution, 293.
133. Barclay to Grahame, Tehran, 5 May 1909, F. O. 248/965.
134. Barclay to Grahame, Tehran, 6 May 1909, F. O. 248/965.
135. Barclay to Grahame, Tehran 9 May 1909, F. O. 248/965.
136. Browne, The Persian Revolution, 305.
137. Ibid.
138. Bakhtiyari tradition holds, however, that the tribes "were secretly encouraged by the British to continue." See Garthwaite, Khans and Shahs, 118.
139. Barclay to Grahame, Tehran, 17 June 1909, F. O. 248/965;
140. Browne, The Persian Revolution, 306.
141. Browne, The Persian Revolution, 293.
142. Ibid., 312-13.
143. Times, 30 June 1909.
144. 'Akasha, Tarikh-i Il-i Bakhtiyari, 596-97;
145. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 178-79.
146. Hajj Sayyah, Khatirat, 624;
147. Malikzada, Tarikh-i Inqilab-i Mashrutiyat-i Iran, 6:1093.
148. Times, 5 July 1909.
149. Ibid., 18 August 1909.
150. 'Akasha, Tarikh-i Il-i Bakhtiyari, 599-600.
151. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 181-82;
152. 'Akasha, Tarikh-i Il-i Bakhtiyari, 599-601.
153. Browne, The Persian Revolution, 315-17.
154. Ibid., 319-21.
155. For a postconstitutional history of the Bakhtiyari party, see Peter Avery, Modern Iran (New York: Praeger), 144-46.
156. For an account of the rebellion by the Shahsavan against the constitutional movement, see Richard Tapper, "Raiding, Reaction, and Rivalry: The Shahsevan Tribes in the Constitutional Period," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 49 (1986): 508-31.
157. For the Bakhtiyari involvement in subduing the rebellion, see Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 184-86.
158. Telegraph from Grahame to Foreign Office, Isfahan, 4 January 1909, F. O. 248/965.
159. Lois Beck, The Qashqa'i of Iran (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986), 107-8.
160. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 186-89, 595;
161. Garthwaite, Khans and Shahs, 121.
162. Uzhan, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 232-34;
163. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 190, 595;
164. Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 299-300.
165. Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 302.
166. Further Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of Persia, "Persia No. 3 (1912)," cd. 6104 (London: HMSO), 43.
167. Consul Smart to Sir G. Barclay, Shiraz, 20 April 1911, ibid., cd. 6104, 45;
168. Sir George Barclay, "Annual Report on Persia for the Year 1911," British Documents on Foreign Affairs, pt. 1, ser. B, 14:219.
169. Acting Consul Knox to Sir G. Barclay, Shiraz, 18 May 1911, Further Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of Persia, 90.
170. Barclay, "Annual Report on Persia for the Year 1911," 14:220.
171. Acting Consul Knox to Sir G. Barclay, Shiraz, 20 October 1911, Further Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of Persia, cd. 6105, 147.
172. For an account of the insurrection in Fars, see Beck, The Qashqa'i of Iran, 106-8.
173. Darrihshuri, Bakhtiyariha wa Qajariyah, 301.
174. Shuster, The Strangling of Persia, 90-94.
175. Ibid., 116-17.
176. Ibid., 127.
177. Ibid., 127-28.
178. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 601-8;
179. Shuster, The Strangling of Persia, 86, 115, 117, 121.
180. Amir Mufakhkham also claimed to have lost fifteen thousand tumans that he had received from the Imperial Bank at Hamadan. Shuster, The Strangling of Persia, 134;
181. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 603.
182. Uzhan, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 235-53;
183. Shuster, The Strangling of Persia, 135;
184. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 603-4.
185. Ross, A Lady Doctor in Bakhtiari Land. A British doctor who lived among the Bakhtiyari and was the physician of the tribe in Dih Kurd, Ross left a unique account of the women of the Bakhtiyari during the constitutional period in her travelogue. For a rare account of the revolution written by a Bakhtiyari woman,
186. see Bibi Maryam, Khatirat-i Sardar Maryam.
187. Ibid., 99-101.
188. Ibid., 90-121. Ross notes that many of the younger generation of bibis could "read, write, and do accounts" - they reported to the khans and sent letters to them by means of armed messengers - and recalls an occasion when Bibi Sanna, the wife of Sardar As'ad, acted as judge and tried a thief at Junaqan.
189. Ibid., 43, 106.
190. Ibid., 91.
191. George B. Reynolds to Samsam al-Santana, Ahwaz, 7 December 1905, F. O. 248/894.
192. Reynolds to Lorimer, Ahwaz, 14 February 1907, F. O. 248/923.
193. Reynolds to Concessions Syndicate Ltd., Ahwaz, 26 December 1906, British Petroleum Archives, Warwick, UK, file 77/49/3/2.
194. See "The Crime of Anonymity," E. P. Thompson's classic article on arson in the forests of eighteenth-century England, in Albion's Fatal Tree: Crime and Society in Eighteenth Century England, ed. Douglas Hay (New York: Pantheon, 1975), 255-308.
195. See also Thompson, "The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century," Past and Present 50 (1971): 76-136;
196. James Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976).
197. Ross, A Lady Doctor in Bakhtiari Land, 123-24.
198. Political Diaries of the Persian Gulf, vol. 4, 1910-1912 (London: Archive Editions, 1990), 163-64.
199. Ibid., 294.
200. Ibid., 327.
201. Ibid., 328.
202. Ja'far Quli Khan Sardar Bahadur, Khatirat-i Sardar As'ad-i Bakhtiyari (The Memoirs of Sardar As'ad Bakhtiyari) (Tehran: Intisharat-i Asatir, AH 1378 [1999]), 13-14.
203. Political Diaries of the Persian Gulf, vol. 4, 1910-1912, 351, 364.
204. Ibid., 378-79.
205. Ibid., 406, 419.
206. Isfahan News, Dr. M. S. P. Aganoor to George Barclay, Isfahan, 24 October 1908, F. O. 248/937.
207. Lorimer to Cecil Spring Rice, Isfahan, 8 September 1907, F. O. 248/923;
208. Lorimer, Measures for Protection of Oil Syndicate Employees, Isfahan, 13 September 1907.
209. 'Akasha, Tarikh-i Il-i Bakhtiyari, 11.
210. Malikzada, Tarikh-i Inqilab-i Mashrutiyat-i Iran, 5:1083.
211. Henri Rene Allmagne, Az Khurasan ta Bakhtiyari (From Khurasan to Bakhtiyari) (Tehran: Intisharat-i Tawus, AH 1378 [1999]), 1:570-76.
212. Originally published as Du Khorassan au pays de Backhtiyaris (Paris: Hachette, 1911).
213. Austen Henry Layard, Early Adventures in Persia, Susiana, and Babylonia (London: John Murray, 1887), 1:212.
214. Iran Political Diaries, 1881-1965, vol. 2, 1901-1905 (London: Archive Editions, 1997), 454.
215. By the terms of the Bakhtiyari Oil Agreement of 1905, the company was to pay the khans two thousand pounds per year in quarterly installments for the furnishing of guards for the oil fields, with the khans agreeing to be "responsible for any robbery which may occur in the Bakhtiyari country" and for any robberies and any damage done to the company's property in their territory. Originally, two bodies of guards totaling eighty men were to be stationed at Maidan-i Naphtun and Mamatain, with each guard theoretically earning between 50 and 100 tumans a year as wages, plus fodder for his horse. E. Grant Duff to Sir Edward Grey, Tehran, 18 May 1906, F. O. 248/894.
216. Memorandum from Lieutenant Colonel H. Picot, Tehran, 5 January 1898, F. O. 60/603.
217. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 187.
218. Fraser, Turkey and Persia in Revolt, 200.
219. Ibid., 88.
220. Shuster, The Strangling of Persian, 90-93.
221. Ibid., 115.
222. Ibid., 115-16.
223. Ibid., 158-59.
224. Ibid., 159.
225. Ibid., 162.
226. Garthwaite, Khans and Shahs, 122;
227. Kazemzadah, Russia and Britain in Persia, 611.
228. Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 333.
229. Ibid., 629-30, 638.
230. Garthwaite, Khans and Shahs, 123;
231. Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 333-34.
232. Sardar As'ad and Sipihr, Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, 596. As time passed, Sardar As'ad expressed regret for the way in which the Bakhtiyari's struggles in the constitutional revolution were resolved. He reread the tribe's history, the Tarikh-i Bakhtiyari, and burned those pages of the draft that he saw as exaggerating their role in the revolution.
233. Yahya Dawlatabadi, Hayat-i Yahya (Tehran, 1331/1942-943), 215.
234. Habl al-Matin, 9 September 1912; see also 2 June 1913 and 11 August 1913.
235. Barclay, "Annual Report on Persia for the Year 1911," 14:236;
236. Barclay, "Annual Report on Persia for the Year 1910," British Documents on Foreign Affairs, pt. 1, ser. B, 14:90.
237. For an account of the battles between the Bakhtiyari and the Gendarmes in Tehran circa 1913, see 'Abdullah Bahrami, Khatirat-i 'Abdullah Bahrami: Az Akhar-i Saltanat-i Nasir al-Din Shah ta Awwal-i Kudita (The Memories of 'Asadullah Bahrami, from the End of the Rule of Nasir al-Din Shah to the Beginning of the Coup d'Etat) (1963; Tehran: Intisharat-i Ilmi, 1984), 151-59.
238. Iran Political Diaries, 1881-1965, vol. 5, 1910-1920 (London: Archive Editions, 1997), 538.
239. Habl al-Matin, 11 August 1913.
240. Iran Political Diaries, 1881-1965, 5:576.
241. Garthwaite, Khans and Shahs, 125.
242. Habl al-Matin, 3 May 1914.
243. Iran Political Diaries, 1881-1965, 5:576.