The Carnegie Corporation and the mobilisation of opinion in the United States' rise to globalism, 1939-1945

Minerva

Volumn 37, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 355-378

  Parmar, Inderjeet ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 27744511284     PISSN: 00264695     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/a:1004797821885     Document Type: Article

References (151)

1. Lagemann, Ellen Condliffe, The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy, and Public Policy (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1989).
2. Berman, Edward H., The Influence of the Carnegie, Rockefeller and Ford Foundations on American Foreign Policy: The Ideology of Philanthropy (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983).
3. Rothstein, Robert L., "On the Costs of Realism", Political Science Quarterly, LXXXVII (September 1972).
4. Preface, Index to Reports of Officers, Vol. I 1921-51 (New York: Carnegie Corporation, 1953).
5. Eisenach, Eldon, The Lost Promise of Progressivism (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1994).
6. Lagemann, E.C., The Politics of Knowledge, op.cit.
7. Index to Reports, op. cit.;
8. see also annual reports, 1944-46.
9. Annual report, 1945, pp. 17-18.
10. Annual report, 1952, pp. 19-20.
11. Barman, E.H., The Influence of Carnegie, op. cit.;
12. see also, Arnove, Robert F. (ed.), Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism: The Foundations at Home and Abroad (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1980);
13. Bates, Thomas R., "Gramsci and the Theory of Hegemony", Journal of the History of Ideas, XXXVI (April-May 1975);
14. Hoare, Quintin and Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey (eds), Selections From the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1971).
15. For the historic mission of the American foreign-policy establishment, see Hodgson, Godfrey, "The Establishment", in Hodgson, G. (ed.), America In Our Time (New York: Vintage Books, 1978).
16. Karl, Barry D. and Katz, Stanley N., "Foundations and Ruling Class Elites", Daedalus, CXVI, 1 (Winter 1987).
17. Coser, Lewis A., Men of Ideas (New York: Free Press, 1965), p. 339.
18. "Memorandum on Carnegie Grants in the Field of International Relations", by N. Peffer, 17 April, 1942, pp. 1-2, in Carnegie Corporation Grant Files, Box 187: International Relations; Rare Book and Manuscript Collection, Butler Library, Columbia University. (Hereafter CC Grant Files.)
19. Rothstein, R. L., "On the Costs of Realism", Memorandum on Carnegie Grants in the Field of International Relations op. cit.
20. Knutsen, Torbjorn, A History of International Relations Theory (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997).
21. "Notes on the American Committee for International Studies", 5 April, 1941, p. 1, in CC Grant Files, Box 18. The ACIS consisted of four institutional members: CFR, FPA, IPR and the United States National Committee on International Intellectual Cooperation, and of nine academics appointed by the Social Science Research Council. Later, the ACIS was designated by the SSRC as its Committee on International Relations.
22. Ibid., "Notes on the American Committee for International Studies", pp. 1-2, in CC Grant Files, Box 18.
23. See, e.g., these articles by Earle: "The Future of American Foreign Policy", The New Republic, 8 November, 1939;
24. "American Military Policy and National Security", Political Science Quarterly, LIII (March 1938);
25. "Political and Military Strategy of the United States", Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science, 1940;
26. "National Security and Foreign Policy", The Yale Review, XXIX (March 1940);
27. "The Threat to American Security", in The Yale Review, ibid., XXX (March 1941).
28. "Memorandum on an Agenda for the Conference on Atlantic Relations", by W. W. Lockwood, secretary of ACIS (undated but probably early 1941), in CC Grant Files, Box 18.
29. Letter, Dollard to William W. Lockwood, 16 April, 1941.
30. Record of interview (by telephone), Frederick P. Keppel (president of the Carnegie Corporation) and Earle, 20 December, 1937, in CC Grant Files, Institute for Advanced Study. "Study of the Military and Foreign Policies of the US 1937 through 1943", Box 178; located at Columbia University, New York.
31. Letter, Earle to Keppel, 29 November, 1938, CC Grant Files, Box 178.
32. Ibid., p. 3. In all, up to 1942 only, Earle's work received over $56,000 from the Corporation. See Executive Committee minutes, 7 November, 1940, 5 March, 1941, and 10 March, 1941, for details.
33. See, e.g., articles by the military historian, Alfred Vagts, which Earle described as "brilliant": "War and the Colleges", American Military Institute, Document no. 4, 1940;
34. "Ivorytowers into Watch Towers", Virginia Quarterly Review, XVII (Spring 1941).
35. Letter, Page to Charles Dollard, 23 October, 1941, CC Grant Files, Box 178. Dollard assured Page, however, that Earle could be "trusted not to introduce any ringers . . .". Letter, Dollard to Page, 7 November, 1941.
36. CC Grant Files, Edward Mead Earle, grant award of $1200, 13 February, 1941; see his "Memorandum Regarding Problems of Morale, Recreation, and Health in Connection with American Naval and Air Bases in the Caribbean Area", May 1941, in Box 135.
37. Record of Interviews: Keppel and Earle, 17 October, 1941; and Dollard and Earle, 17 December, 1941; in CC Grant Files, Box 135.
38. Letter, Frank Aydelotte (IAS) to Robert M. Lester (secretary, Carnegie Corporation), 16 December, 1940, CC Grant Files, Box 178.
39. Letter, Aydelotte to Walter A. Jessup (president, Carnegie Corporation), 26 January, 1942, in ibid. The syllabus was entitled War and National Policy: A Syllabus, and was published by Farrar and Rhinehart.
40. War and National Policy: A Syllabus, Ibid.
41. Fox, William T. R., "Interwar International Relations Research: The American Experience", World Politics, II (October 1949), p. 78;
42. Olson, William and Groom, A. J. R., International Relations Then and Now (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 99;
43. Booth, Ken and Herring, Eric, Keyguide to Information Sources in Strategic Studies (London: Mansell, 1994), p. 16.
44. In 1968, the third edition of Sea Power was published and the fifth edition of Guide to Naval Strategy was issued in 1965. See Earle's report on the work of the Seminar 1942-43 in CC Grant Files, Box 178; Brodie's entry in Who Was Who, vol. VII;
45. Gray, Colin, Strategic Studies: A Critical Assessment (London: Aldwych Press, 1982), pp. 15-16.
46. Peffer, N., "Memorandum", Strategic Studies: A Critical Assessment op. cit., pp. 5-6.
47. Peffer, N., Strategic Studies: A Critical Assessment Ibid., pp. 3-4. If, after 1945, American universities became part of the national security state, then Earle's work at Princeton played a key role in the initial stages of development.
48. See, e.g., Hogan, Michael, A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
49. Letter, Elihu Root, jnr (Carnegie Corporation trustee) to Jessup, 6 July, 1942, CC Grant Files, Box 178.
50. Gelb, Leslie H. (president of CFR), in his foreword to Grose, Peter, Continuing the Inquiry: The Council on Foreign Relations from 1921 to 1996 (New York: CFR, 1996).
51. See Carnegie Corporation annual reports. Peffer again understates the funding levels severely, with his figure of $309,000 (up to 1942).
52. For more on the CFR, see Shoup, L. and Minier, W., Imperial Brain Trust (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977);
53. Schulzinger, R. D., The Wise Men of Foreign Affairs (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984);
54. Wala, M., The Council on Foreign Relations and American Foreign Policy in the Early Cold War (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1994);
55. Parmar, I., "The Issue of State Power: The CFR as a Case Study", Journal of American Studies, XXIX (April 1995), pp. 73-95.
56. Peffer, N., "Memorandum", Journal of American Studies, op. cit., pp. 6-7.
57. Peffer, N., Journal of American Studies, Ibid., pp. 7-8.
58. Shoup, L. and Minter, W., Imperial Brain Trust, op. cit.
59. Office of the President, record of interview, 3 September, 1937; letter, Page to Keppel, 15 October, 1937; CC Grant Files, Box 126; Council on Foreign Relations: Committees on Foreign Relations 1937-40. Up to 1942 alone, the Corporation donated $100,000 to this programme; by 1945, a further $70,000 had been granted.
60. Bidwell, P. W., introduction to Dalgliesh, W. Harold, Community Education in Foreign Affairs: A Report on Nineteen American Cities (New York: CFR, 1946), pp. iii-viii.
61. Memorandum by Walter H. Mallory (executive director of the CFR), "Project for Popular Education in International Affairs Proposed by the Carnegie Corporation", 1 November, 1937, p. 2.
62. Memorandum by Phillips Bradley (associate professor of political science, Amherst College) to F. W. Keppel, 21 September, 1937, p. 8.
63. Office of the President, record of interview (Devereux C. Josephs), 18 January, 1946; in CC Grant Files, Box 127: Council on World Affairs (Cleveland). Emeny was head of the Council on World Affairs in Cleveland, effectively the local branch of the Foreign Policy Association. He was also a member of the CFR and of the Cleveland Committee on Foreign Relations.
64. Letter, Leffingwell to Mallory, 16 March, 1942, CC Grant Files, Box 127: CFR.
65. Bidwell, Percy W., "A Seven-Year Survey of an Educational Project in International Relations 1938-1945", in "Council on Foreign Relations", CC Grant Files, Box 127, p. 3;
66. "Report to the Carnegie Corporation on the Work of the Foreign Relations Committees of the CFR during the 1942-43 Season", CC Grant Files, Box 127.
67. Bidwell, P. W., "Report on the Work of the Foreign Relations Committees, 1941-42", in Report to the Carnegie Corporation on the Work of the Foreign Relations Committees of the CFR during the 1942-43 Season ibid.
68. Bidwell, P. W., "A Seven-Year Survey", Report to the Carnegie Corporation on the Work of the Foreign Relations Committees of the CFR during the 1942-43 Season op. cit., p. 5.
69. CFR annual report, "Report of the Executive Director 1944-45", p. 14.
70. Bidwell, P. W., "A Seven-Year Survey", CFR annual report, op. cit., pp. 6-7.
71. Quotation is from "Memorandum for Counsel of Carnegie Corporation", pp. 1-15, 30 June, 1952. CC Grant Files, 1946-55; Dulles, letter to Miller, n.d. CC Grant Files, Box 127;
72. Bidwell, P. W., "Report . . . 1941-42", Memorandum for Counsel of Carnegie Corporation op. cit., p. 8;
73. Heaton, Herbert, A Scholar in Action: Edwin F. Gay (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), pp. 237-241.
74. Letter, Wilson to Breckinridge Long, Assistant Secretary of State, 13 July, 1940; memo by Charles W. Yost, Division of Special Research, to Leo Pasvolsky, 14 April, 1942, p. 1.
75. Miller, Francis P., Man From the Valley (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), p. 87.
76. Peffer, N., "Memorandum", Man From the Valley op. cit., p. 12.
77. "Memorandum for Counsel: FPA", 27 June, 1952, in CC Grant Files, Box 147, p. 2.
78. Peffer, N., "Memorandum", Memorandum for Counsel: FPAop. cit., p. 12. By 1945, membership had increased to almost 28,000;
79. see "Report on Work of the Foreign Policy Association", July 1944-45, CC Grant Files, Box 147.
80. "Memorandum for Counsel: Foreign Policy Association", Report on Work of the Foreign Policy Association op. cit., p. 3.
81. Peffer, N., "Memorandum", Report on Work of the Foreign Policy Association op. cit., p. 12.
82. Letter, Carnegie Corporation to McCoy, 18 January, 1943, CC Grant Files, Box 147.
83. Peffer, N., "Memorandum", Report on Work of the Foreign Policy Association op.cit., p. 14. The International Ladies Garments Workers' Union also distributed 100 copies of each Headline Book to its educational committee;
84. see FPA Report to the Corporation, 1 October, 1940 to 30 April, 1941, p. 2.
85. "FPA Education Program" report, 21 May, 1943, CC Grant Files, Box 147.
86. According to one account, "Many a future diplomat, author, or professor of IR got his or her start through active participation in IRCs". See Olson, William C. and Groom, A. J. R., International Relations Then and Now: Origins and Trends in Interpretation (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 75.
87. "FPA Education Program", International Relations Then and Now: Origins and Trends in Interpretation op. cit.
88. FPA report, op. cit., 1 October, 1940, to 30 April, 1941, p. 2.
89. See reports of FPA work for 1940-41, 1941-42 in CC Grant Files.
90. See FPA report to Carnegie Corporation, 1 September, 1943 to 1 July, 1944, p. 4.
91. "Memorandum on the Work of the FPA", attached to 1941-42 FPA report to Carnegie Corporation, pp. 3-4.
92. FPA report on work, 1 September, 1941, to 1 July, 1942, p. 3;
93. "Memorandum on the Work of the Foreign Policy Association", attached to that report.
94. "Memorandum for Counsel", Memorandum on the Work of the Foreign Policy Association op. cit., pp. 12-13.
95. Memorandum on the Work of the Foreign Policy Association Ibid., p. 11.
96. "Memorandum on the Work of the Foreign Policy Association", Memorandum on the Work of the Foreign Policy Association op. cit., p.1, for a favourable opinion from Under Secretary of State, Summer Welles; and letter, quoting former Secretary of State, Edward Stettinius, jnr, 28 October, 1946, from the FPA to the Carnegie Corporation, CC Grant Files, Box 147.
97. Record of interview, Devereux C. Josephs (CC) and Maj-Gen. Frank L. McCoy (FPA), 6 September, 1945; CC Grant Files, FPA, Box 147.
98. Woods, Lawrence T., Asia-Pacific Diplomacy (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1993), p. 7.
99. Thomas. John N., The Institute of Pacific Relations, Asian Scholars and American Politics (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1974), p. 4.
100. Woods, L. T., Asia-Pacific Diplomacy, op. cit., p. 8.
101. Thomas, J. N., The Institute of Pacific Relations, op. cit., p. 4.
102. Field, Frederick Vanderbilt, From Right to Left (Westport: Lawrence Hill, 1983).
103. Thomas, J. N., The Institute of Pacific Relations, op. cit., pp. 5, 30;
104. see also Woods, L. T., Asia-Pacific Diplomacy, op. cit., pp. 33, 35.
105. Lattimore, Owen, China Memoirs: Chiang Kai-shek and the War Against Japan (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1990), p. 35.
106. Official Foreign Office influence over the British national council is well documented: see Thorne, Christopher, "Chatham House, Whitehall and Far Eastern Issues: 1941-45", in Bosco, Andrea and Navari, Cornelia (eds), Chatham House and British Foreign Policy 1919-1945 (London: Lothian Foundation Press, 1994).
107. Lattimore was appointed political adviser to Chiang Kai-shek by President Roosevelt and also joined the OWI as head of its Asia-Pacific bureau; China Memoirs, op. cit., pp. 167-168.
108. Berman, E. H., The Influence of Carnegie, op. cit., p. 46.
109. The AIPR even opened an office in Washington, DC, on the outbreak of the Second World War, forging stronger government links, "to facilitate cooperation in the war effort"; Thomas, J. N., The Institute of Pacific Relations, op. cit., p. 34.
110. Figures calculated from Carnegie Corporation annual reports for the entire period.
111. Dalgliesh, W. Harold, Community Education in Foreign Affairs, op. cit., p. 4.
112. Dalgliesh, Community Education in Foreign Affairs, Ibid., p. 16.
113. Peffer, N., "Memorandum", Community Education in Foreign Affairs, op. cit., p. 16.
114. See also Paul F. Hooper's article, "The IPR and the Origins of Asian and Pacific Studies", in Pacific Affairs, LXI (Spring 1988), pp. 98-121.
115. See FPA reports in CC Grant Files, for 1940-41, 1941-42, and 1943-44.
116. CEIP, Division of Intercourse and Education annual reports, 1937 and 1939.
117. Division of Intercourse and Education annual reports, Ibid., 1943, 1944, 1945.
118. Peffer, N., "Memorandum", Division of Intercourse and Education annual reports, op. cit., p. 16.
119. Produced jointly with the FPA, 1941-42.
120. Peffer, N., "Memorandum", Division of Intercourse and Education annual reports op. cit., p. 17.
121. Record of interview, Dollard to Wm W. Lockwood and W. L. Holland, 6 March, 1942, CC Grant Files, Box 182 (AIPR).
122. Letter, Henry James to W. A. Jessup (both Carnegie Corporation), 7 April, 1942; and letter, Lockwood to Robert M. Lester (Carnegie Corporation), 21 January, 1943, in CC Grant Files, Box 182.
123. Indeed, the Carnegie Corporation from 1947 promoted "area studies" programmes in selected universities.
124. Divine, Robert, Second Chance (New York: Atheneum, 1967).
125. Judis, John B., "The American Establishment: Twilight of the Gods", in The Wilson Quarterly (Autumn 1991), pp. 43-44.
126. Quotation from Corporation annual report, 1946, p. 44.
127. See relevant annual reports.
128. Parmar, Inderjeet, "To 'inform the minds and educate the attitude of this great new sovereign that is taking charge of foreign affairs'. The CEIP and the Mobilization of American Public Opinion, 1939-1945", Review of International Studies (January 2000).
129. Hodgson, Godfrey, The Colonel: The Life and Wars of Henry L. Stimson (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990);
130. Hodgson, G., "The Establishment", The Colonel: The Life and Wars of Henry L. Stimson op. cit.
131. Butler, Nicholas Murray, Across the Busy Years: Recollections and Reflections, vol. II (New York: Charles Scribners', 1940), pp. 93-94.
132. Divine, R., Second Chance, op. cit., p. 21
133. CFR conferences: see CEIP Papers, IV. Organizations, CFR, Boxes 354-356; SCIR material in letter, Eugene Pfaff (SCIR) to Malcolm W. Davis (CEIP), 2 February, 1945, Box 359.
134. Greco, John, "A Foundation for Internationalism: The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1931-1941", unpublished PhD dissertation, Syracuse University, 1971, pp. 26-27.
135. Divine, R., Second Chance, op. cit., pp. 127-129.
136. Divine, R., Second Chance, pp. 127-129. Ibid.; and CEIP Papers, particularly minutes of trustees' meetings.
137. Letter, John B. Condliffe (CEIP) to Leo Pasvolsky (special assistant to Cordell Hull, Secretary of State), 5 June, 1943, in Pasvolsky Papers, File 7, Box 4, 1943, RG 59, Records of the Department of State, National Archives, College Park, Maryland.
138. Trustees' meetings, 6 May, 1943, and 13 December, 1943; Divine, R., Second Chance, op. cit., p. 102.
139. Masland, John, "The Peace Groups Join Battle", Public Opinion Quarterly, IV (December 1940), p. 673.
140. Letter, Earle to Lynd, 6 July, 1940, in RG1.1 Series 200, Institute For Advanced Study (Princeton), Folder 4167, Box 350, Rockefeller Foundation Papers, Rockefeller Archive Center, New York.
141. "Notes on the American Committee for International Studies", op. cit., 5 April, 1941, p. 2.
142. Proposal received and filed in CC Grant Files, 3 September,1940, Box 18.
143. Report on Lynd Proposal (summary), 22 October, 1940, in CC Grant Files, Box 18.
144. Report by Savage, 13 November, 1940, in ibid.
145. Coser, L. A., Men of Ideas, op. cit., p. 339.
146. "Notes on the American Committee for International Studies", Men of Ideas, op. cit., p. 3.
147. Divine, R., Second Chance, op. cit.;
148. see also Masland, John, "Attitudes and Activities of the Organized 'Peace' Pressure Groups, 1920-41", 29 March, 1943, in Cordell Hull Papers, Subject File: Foreign Policy, Public Opinion in 1931-43, Microfilm Reel 35, Library of Congress, Washington, DC;
149. Wala, M., The Council on Foreign Relations, op. cit.
150. Miliband, Ralph, The State in Capitalist Society (London: Quartet Books, 1973);
151. Ginsberg, Benjamin, The Captive Public (New York: Basic Books, 1986).