Who's afraid of national laws? Pesticide corporations use trade negotiations to avoid bans and undercut public health protections in Central America

International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health

Volumn 11, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 437-443

  Rosenthal, Erika ^a  

^a Earthjustice   (United States)

Author keywords

Agrochemical industry; CAFTA; Central America; Industry influence; Trade agreements

Indexed keywords

PESTICIDE;

AGRICULTURE; CENTRAL AMERICA; CHEMICAL INDUSTRY; COMMERCIAL PHENOMENA; GOVERNMENT; HEALTH HAZARD; INVESTMENT; MARKETING; PEST CONTROL; PESTICIDE SPRAYING; POLITICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

EID: 27644500613     PISSN: 10773525     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1179/oeh.2005.11.4.437     Document Type: Review

References (43)

1. OPS/PLAGSALUD. Plaguicidas y salud en el Istmo Centroamericano [Pesticides and health in the Central American Isthmus]. San José, Costa Rica: OPS, 2000.
2. In 2000, pesticide use was approximately 45,000 tons in the seven Central American countries. Central America has a per-capita pesticide use of 2.1 kg, making it the region with the highest per-capita use of pesticides in the world. The WHO average annual estimate is 0.6 kg/person/year. Also: Wesseling C, Aragón A, Castillo L, et al. Hazardous pesticides in Central America. Int J Occup Environ Health. 2001;7:287-94 .
3. Murray D, Wesseling C, Keifer M, Corriols M, Henao S. Surveillance of pesticide-related illness in the developing world: putting the data to work. Im J Occup Environ Health 2002; 8:243-248.
4. See also: Wesseling C, Aragón A, Castillo L, et al.Surveillance of pesticide-related illness in the developing world: putting the data to work. Im J Occup Environ Health 2002; 8: 243-248. ibid.
5. The 12 pesticides are: aldicarb, aluminum phosphide, carbofuran, chlorpyriphos, endosulfan, etoprophos, methamidophos, methomyl, methylparathion, monocrotophos, paraquat, and terbufos. For more information see: Epidemiological situation of acute pesticide poisoning in the Central American isthmus, 1992-2000, Epidemiol Bull. 2002;23:No. 3, September, available on the Pan American Health Organization Web site at: 〈http://www.paho.org/English/ SHA/be_v23n3-plaguicidas.htm〉.
6. WHO/ILO/UNED. The WHO Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard and Guidelines to Classification 1998-1999. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCS, 1998.
7. Pesticide Registration Division (DRENCIAP) of the Nicaraguan Ministry of Agriculture (MAGFOR). Pesticide registry, October 2002. National companies also market these products.
8. Personal communication, Dr. Marianela Corriols, PLAGSALUD, OPS/PAHO. May 2004.
9. The RESSCAD resolution requests the appropriate ministries in each country to ". . . restrict the use of the 12 pesticides . . . recognized as responsible for the largest number of poisonings and deaths [in] the Subregion . . . and to realize the administrative measures necessary to prohibit the 107 listed pesticides" which correspond to those that are prohibited in one or more of the 8 countries of the Subregion." OPS PLAGSALUD, Fichas técnicas de plaguicidas a prohibir restringir incluidos en el Acuerdo No. 9 de la XVI Reunion del Sector Salud de Centroamérica y Republica Dominicana (RESSCAD). OPS/OMS. Proyecto PLAGSALUD Costa Rica, 2001. [PAHO PLAGSALUD. Technical information cards for the pesticides listed as ones that should be banned or restricted in Agreement No. 9 of the XVI Meeting of the Health Sector of Central America and the Dominican Republic (RESSCAD).
10. Ley No. 274 de Nicaragua, Ley Básica para la Regulacion y Control de Plaguicidas, Sustancias Tóxicas, Peligrosas y Otras Similares (1998) [Law No. 274, Nicaragua. Basic Law for the Regulation and Control of Pesticides, Toxic and Dangerous Substances and other Similar Substances (1998)].
11. Arto. 60, Ley 274. "La Autoridad de Aplicación someterá a reevaluación técnica las sustancias químicas ... y productos formulados registrados cuando existan indicadores de efectos adversos a la actividad agropecuaria sostenida, la salud humana y el ambiente en general. . ." [Article 60, Law274. "The implementing authority will submit for technical reevaluation those chemical substances... and registered formulated products when indicators of adverse effects on agricultural activity, human health and the environment in general exist..."]
12. Both the Technical Reevaluation Committee and the PLAGSALUD program received major funding from DANIDA (the Danish Agency for International Development) through its Program of Support to the Agriculture Sector (PASA DANIDA) and support for the Pan American Health Organization, respectively.
13. The industry participated through the Central American Crop Life associations, ANIFODA, APA, and AGRIQUIMA.
14. It is fairly common knowledge in Nicaragua that the Minister of Agriculture also has a significant ownership interest in one of the national pesticide companies that sells methamidophos on the national market. Similarly, the former president of El Salvador, Alfredo Cristiani, has major interests in pesticide formulating and sales businesses in that country.
15. For the full text of CAFTA please see the U.S. Trade Representative's CAFTA briefing book at 〈http://www.ustr.gov/Trade_ Agreements/Bilateral/ CAFTA/Briefmg_Book/Section_Index. html?ht=〉.
16. Although the final draft text of the proposed Customs Union still has not been made public, more information about its contents and the work plan of the negotiating countries can be found on the Web site of the Central American Secretariat for Economic Integration (SIECA), 〈www.sieca.org.〉 and at the Web site of the Costa Rican Ministry of Commerce (COMEX, Ministerio de Comercio Exterior de Costa Rica), 〈www.comex.go.cr〉.
17. The Unified Pesticide Registry is known in trade terminology as an equivalence agreement, whereby a trade agreement declares that different countries' regulations or standards-even with distinctly different levels of public health protection-are legally equivalent. Another example of an equivalency agreement is found in the bilateral trade agreement between the United States and Australia, which allowed the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to grant equivalency status to the Australian Meat Safety Enhancement Program, even though in the United States independent government agents inspect meat, while in Australia the meat industry itself carries out the inspections. See text of the agreement at: 〈http://www.ustr.gov/Trade_Agreements/ Bilateral/Australia_FTA/Final_Text/Section_Index.html〉.
18. See for a list of framework treaties and regulations, including the Reglamento Centroamericano sobre Medidas y Procedimientos Sanitarios y Fitosanitarios. Aprobado mediante Resolucion No. 37-99 (COMIECO-XIII), del 17 de septiembre de 1999 Modificado mediante Resolucion No. 87-2002 (COMIECO-XXIII) del 23 de Agosto de 2002. [Central American Regulation on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measure and Procedures. Approved as Resolution No. 37-99 (COMIECO-XIII) of September 17, 1999, modified as Resolution No. 87-2002 (COMIECO-XXIII) of August 23, 2002].
19. See also: Boletin Extraordinaria SIECA, 13 marzo 2003, at 〈www.sieca.org.gt/Publico/Cotos_y_Publicaciones/Boletin_Informativo? Boletin_ Extraordinario/No_68/BOLETIN_EXTRAORDINARIO_%20No. 68.htm〉.
20. Comité Técnico de Re-Evaluación (CTR) Nicaragua. Evaluaciones Técnicas: Metamidofos, Monocroptofos y Paration Metil-Recomendaciones Finales. Componente Apoyo a la Regulación de Plaguicidas, Programa de Apoyo al Sector Agrícola; Agencia Danesa para el Desarrollo Internacional (PASA-DANIDA). Septiembre 2003. [Technical Reevaluation Committee of Nicaragua. Technical Evaluations: Methamidaphos, Monocroptophos and Methyl Parathion-Final Recommendations. Support to Pesticide Regulation Component, Program of Support to the Agriculture Sector; Danish Agency for International Development (PASA-DANIDA). September 2003.]
21. Personal communication, Julio Sanchez, coordinator of the Pesticide Action Network-Central America program at the Centro Humboldt, a Nicaraguan nonprofit environmental organization.
22. SIECA. Estado de Avance de la Unión Aduanera Centroamericana (agosto 2004). "Los países centroamericanos tienen como objetivo ... [el]estricto apego a las Constituciones de los Estados Parte..." 〈www.sieca.org.gt/publico/IntegracionEcoCA/Union Aduanera/ SITUATIONUACAactual.htm〉 [SIECA, State of Advance of the Central American Customs Union (August 2004). "The Central American countries have as their objective ... strict adherence to the constitutions of the State parties. ..."]
23. See Articles 59 and 60, respectively, of the Constitution of the Republic of Nicaragua (1987 with the reforms of 1995 and 2000), guaranteeing all Nicaraguans the right to health and the right to live in a healthy environment. Article 59 also states that: "The State will establish basic conditions for health promotion, protection, recuperation and rehabilitation. It is the responsibility of the State to direct and organize programs, services and health actions and to promote popular participation in the defense of health." República de Nicaragua, Constitución de 1987, con las reformas de 1995 y 2000. Artículo 59-Los nicaragüense tienen derecho, por igual, a la salud. El Estado establecerálas condiciones básicas para su promocion, protección, recuperatión y rehabilitación. Corresponde al Estado dirigir y organizar los programas, servicios y acciones de salud y promover la participación popular en defensa de la misma. Los ciudadanos tienen la obligatión de acatar las medidas sanitarias que se determinen. Artículo 60-Los nicaragüenses tienen derecho de habitar en un ambiente saludable; es obligatión del Estado la preservatión, conservación y rescate del medio ambiente y de los recursos naturales. 〈www.georgetown.edu/LatAmer Political/Constitutions/ Nica/nica.html〉.
24. The committee chair position rotates between the three ministries, health, environment, and agriculture, with the current chair being the ministry of agriculture.
25. Because Nicaragua never developed a system of administrative law courts that would facilitate actions against government agencies when they fail to carry out legal duties, even though it received significant multilateral funding to do so, there are limited legal avenues available when government agencies fail to carry out their legal responsibilities.
26. See CAFTA, Chapter 6, Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, for other examples of harmonization, 〈www.ustr.org〉.
27. For more information about OIRSA, the Organización Internacional Regional de Sanidad Agropecuaria, please see their Web site at 〈http://nsl.oirsa.org.sv/〉.
28. See the harmonized regional regulation at: 〈http://www.oirsa.org/ Publicaciones/RC/ReglamentoCentroamericano.htm〉
29. A recent WTO dispute-panel resolution, forcing Japan to weaken its standard on the amount of methyl bromide pesticide residue permitted to conform to WTO-legal CODEX levels, provides another example of harmonization's downward pressure on pesticide and health standards. For more information see Japan-Measures Affecting Agricultural Products-Communication from Japan and the United States [WT/DS76/12, 30 August 2001], 〈http://docsonline.wto.Org/ DDFDocuments/t/WT/DS/76-12.doc〉.
30. For more information about investors' disputes generally, see Public Citizen's Global Trade Watch Web site at 〈www.public citizen.org〉.
31. See Health Canada's. Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) administers the Pest Control Products Act (PCPA), 〈http://www.pmra-arla.gc.ca/english/ highlights/in20050125-e. html〉 for more information.
32. Also see: Grampian Co. υ. Canada (Minister of Health) at the Canadian Office of the Commissioner for Federal Judicial Affairs Web site, 〈http://recueil.cmf. gc.ca/fc/2001/fic/v3/2001fc28706.html〉.
33. Pesticide Action Network Updates Service. Canada's First Province-Wide Ban of Cosmetic Pesticides Threatened under NAFTA. November 15, 2002. 〈www.panna.org〉.
34. See CAFTA Chapter 10, Investment, at 〈www.ustr.org〉.
35. Bird S, Quniteros C, Ticehurst S. Oxfam America Briefing Note, Make Trade Fair for Central America-Agriculture, Investment and Intellectual Property: Three Reasons to Say No to CAFTA. September 2003. 〈www.oxfamamerica.org/ pdfs/cafta_090303. pdf〉.
36. USTR CAFTA Policy Brief. February 2005. 〈www.ustr.gov〉.
37. Although beyond the scope of this paper, the economic realities of trade and integration in Central America will of course also have significant impacts on the agriculture sector, increasing acreage dedicated to nontraditional export crops, which tend to be more pesticide-intensive, while exposing the small-farm sector to fierce international competition. Mexico's experience, where real wages declined in the decade after NAFTA, and the country now has to import 40% of its food needs, is not encouraging. See, for example: Stiglitz J. New trade pacts betray the poorest partners. Initiative for Policy Dialogue. July 10, 2004. 〈www.gsb. columbia.edu/ipd/programs/item.cfm? prid_24&iyid+21&itid+ 544〉. Competition from low-priced U.S. grains dumped on the Mexican market at prices below the cost of production (made possible by enormous agricultural subsidies in the United States) forced more than a million small farmers off their land, and a recent World Bank report that Central America will suffer a similar fate under CAFTA. See: Daniel Lederman, Guillermo Perry, Rodrigo Suescun. Trade Structure, Trade policy and Economic Policy Options in Central America 13. The World Bank, 2002. For information about dumping of agricultural products in Latin America at below the cost of production, see generally: the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, 〈www.foodfirst.org〉.
38. Costa Rica aceptaŕ la Unión Aduanera ". . . solo en el sentido de que signifique igualar o mejorar los estándares nacionales en las distintas áreas." Posición de Costa Rica Frente al Proceso de Integration Económica Centroamericana y la Unión Aduanera. Junio de 2002., Ministro Trejas, Ministerio de Comercio Exterior, Costa Rica. DM-0437-2. [Costa Rica will accept the Customs Union ". . . only if it means equalling or improving national standards in the distinct areas." Postion of Costa Rica on the Central American Integration Process and the Customs Union. June 2002. Ministry of Commerce. Costa Rica. DM-0437-2.]
39. República de Panamá, Decreto Ejecutivo N° 305 (De 9 de septiembre de 2002). Considerando que es deber del Estado garantizar la salud de la población y prevenir la contaminación del ambiente, como derecho humano para el desarrollo sostenible, en todo el territorio nacional. Que establece el licenciamiento previo no automático, para reglamentar la importación de algunas sustancias químicas potencialmente peligrosas, como sustancias o materiales peligrosos controlados. . . . Mireya Moscoso, Presidenta de la República
40. [Republic of Panama, Executive Decree No. 305 (9 September 2002). Considering that it is the duty of the State to guarantee the health of the population and prevent environmental contamination, as a human right for sustainable development, throughout the national territory.
41. That non-automatic licensing prior to import be established, to regulate the importation of chemical substances that are potentially dangerous, such as dangerous controlled substances or materials. . . . Mireya Moscoso, President of the Republic]
42. Key elements of CAFTA include rules on market access, tariff elimination, export subsidies, and sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures. The parties agree once again to apply the science-based rules of the WTO Agreement on SPS Measures, and a technical committee and dispute-resolution process are established. For more information see the U.S. Trade Representative's CAFTA Policy Brief-Feb 2005, 〈www.ustr.gov〉. See also USDA fact sheet: Central American-Dominican Republic-United States Free Trade Agreement. March 2005. 〈www.fas.usda. gov/info/factsheets/CAFTA/overall021105a.html〉 .
43. Regional trade and integration agreements similar to the Central American Customs Union and CAFTA exist or are being negotiated throughout the Americas. In addition to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the southern countries have negotiated the MERCOSUR accord, which has some similar regional pesticide-registration articles; the Andean Pact countries have negotiated an integration agreement and are currently negotiating a free-trade agreement with the United States. For the text of regional and bilateral agreements in Latin America see generally the Web sites of the Inter-American Development Bank, 〈www.iadb.org〉, and the Organization of American States, 〈www.oas.org〉, and their specific trade related pages,〈http:// www.iadb.org/intal/ingles/i-default.htm〉 and 〈www.sice.oas. org/cp_bits/english99/main.asp〉.