The recognition and institutionalization of Islam in Belgium

Muslim World

Volumn 92, Issue 1-2, 2002, Pages 99-113

  Kanmaz, Meryem ^a  

^a GHENT UNIVERSITY   (Belgium)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 27544502451     PISSN: 00274909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1478-1913.2002.tb03734.x     Document Type: Article

References (58)

1. The Dutch weekly magazine Knack, 9.12.1998.
2. Dutch daily paper, De Morgen (15.12.1995).
3. Saying of a representative of CGKR in the daily paper De Nieuwe Gazet (14.12.1998). The CGKR is the official successor of the KCM, the Royal Commissariat on Immigrant Policy. It is a federal governmental organization that works under supervision of the Department of the Prime Minister.
4. By the use of the term 'Muslim community,' we mean those who are themselves or whose parents originated from an Islamic country as well as converts.
5. For studies of immigration in Belgium, see: Albert Martens, Les Immigrés-Flux et reflux d'une main-d'oeuvre d'appoint-La politique belge de l'immigration de 1945à 1970 (Editions Vie Ouvrière/Presses Universitaires de Louvain, 1976);
6. Anne Morelli, Histoire des étrangers et de l'immigrations en Belgique de la préhistoire à nos jours (Bruxelles: Vie Ouvriere, 1992);
7. A. Bastenier and F. Dassetto, eds., Immigrations et nouveaux pluralismes: une confrontation des sociétés (Bruxelles: De Boeck Universite, 1990);
8. R. Lesthaeghe, ed., Communities and Generations-Turkish and Moroccan populations in Belgium (Bruxelles: VUB University Press, 2000).
9. Earlier post World War II immigrations were from Italy, Spain and Greece. After the mining disaster in Marcinelles in 1956 where 262 people died, of whom 136 were Italians, the Italian government decided to submit the agreement to more severe guarantee conditions concerning the safety of the workers. After this period agreements with other countries were set up; Spain (1956), Greece (1957), Morocco and Turkey (1964), Tunisia (1969), Algeria and Yugoslavia (1970).
10. A. Bastenier, "Islam in Belgium. Contradictions and perspectives," in The new Islamic presence in Western Europe., eds. T. Gerholm & Y.G. Lithman (London: Mansell, 1988), 133.
11. These values are based on the census of 1991 and were adapted with a quotient of the estimated percentage of people who acquired the Belgian nationality. See Felice Dasetto, 'Islam en Belgique et en Europe: Facettes et Questions,' in Facettes de l'Islam Beige., ed. F. Dassetto (Louvain-la-Neuve: Academia Bruylant, 1997), 18.
12. U. Manco and M. Renaerts, "Lente institutionnalisation de l'islam et persistence d'inégalités face aux autres cultes reconnus," in U. Manço, Voix et voies musulmanes en Belgique (Bruxelles: Publications des Facultés universitaires Saint-Louis, 2000), 87.
13. Dasseto, in Dassetto (1997), 23.
14. L. Panafit, "Quand le droit écrit l'Islam- L'intégration juridique de l'Islam en Belgique" (Bruxelles: Bruylant, 1999), 261.
15. I am currently conducting field research in the Flemish city of Ghent for a research project entitled: "Islam in Flanders-the social functions of the mosques." The city of Ghent provides a good illustration of the balance of the mosques on the national level. There are 3 Diyanet-mosques, 1 Milli Görüs and 2 of Brotherhoods of a Turkish community existing of approximately 15,000 members. The North African community of approximately 3,700 is spread over three mosques. See the website of the Centre for Islam in Europe for more information: http://allserv rug.ac.be/Zhdeley/CIE.htm.
16. Compared to a mean unemployment rate of 7.6% in the age category 15-64 for men and 15-59 for women, the rates for Moroccans and Turks are remarkably higher; 20.2% Moroccans; 22.7% Turks. U. Manco. "La présence musulmane en Belgique: dimensions historique, démographique et économique," Voix et voies musulmanes en Belgique, ed. U. Manço (Bruxelles: Publications des Facultés universitaires Saint-Louis, 2000), 32-37.
17. A fundamental obstacle is the absence of the right to vote for non-Belgians, on both the local and national levels.
18. Manço, in Manço (2000), 24.
19. Dassetto, in Bastenier and Dassetto (1990), 181.
20. M. Vandemeulebroecke, "Sous le regard des medias," in La Belgique et ses immigrés-les politiques manquées., eds. M-T. Coenen and R. Lewin (Paris/Bruxelles: De Boeck Université, 1997), 205-20;
21. M. Swyngedouw, "La construction du 'Peril immigré en Flandre : 1930-1980,'" in Immigration et racisme en Europe, ed. A. Rea (Editions Complexes, 1998), 107-30.
22. Based on Bourdieu, Swyngedouw mentions the following international events: Khomeini's rise to power in Iran, and later the fatwa against S. Rushdi; the taking of hostages in Lebanon; and the attacks on Western tourists in Egypt and Algeria. As national events: the Headscarf-affair; the so-called over-representation of immigrants in criminality statistics; the 'massive' construction of mosques all over Europe and the West.
23. A. Overbeeke, "Inrichtingsvrijheid op het terrein van eredienst en school-de zoektocht naar godsdienst-gespreksparners hij oude en nieuwe minderheidsgodsdiensten," in Het recht in de samenleving-Recht en Verdraagzaamheid in de multiculturele samenleving. (Antwerpen/Apeldoorn: Bijdragen van het Centrum Grondslagen van het Recht, UFSIA, Maklu, 1993), 99.
24. Articles 19 and 20 of the Belgian Constitution. See A. Ketelaer and A. Five, "Belgiē-een regime sui generis," in Verhouding staat, kerk en vrijzinnigheid in Europa-een rechtsvergelijkende Studie (Brussels: CVZ, 1996), 123.
25. Johan Leman and Monique Renaerts, "Dialogues at different institutional levels among authorities and Muslims in Belgium," in Muslims in the Margin-Political Responses to the Presence of Islam in Western Europe., eds. W.A.R. Shadid and P.S. Van Koningsveld (Kampden: Kook Pharos Publishing House, 1996), 166.
26. If a religion is recognized in the juridical meaning, the government has to provide the possibility to organize Islamic education (2 hours/week) in public primary and secondary schools (i.e., subsidized by the state). These regulations are fixed in the "School pact" law of 1959. In the case of Islam, this law of 1959 was amended in 1978 so that it also became possible to organize Islamic religious education.
27. P. Blaise and V. Coorebyert, "La reconnaissance et la représentation de l'islam," in M-T. Coenen & R. Lewin, eds. La Belgique et ses immigrés-les politiques manquées. (Paris/BXL: De Boeck Université, 1997), 225.
28. "The motives of the Belgian government for adopting the law of 1974 were fairly ambiguous at the time. Even if some of the promoters of the law were inspired by respect for the freedom of religion, this law was meant to maintain good relations with the oil-producing countries in the context of the first oil crisis and at a time wben Belgium was negotiating commercial contracts with them. " Bastenier in Gerholm and Lithman (1988), 140. See also L. Panafit (1999); Swyngedouw in Rea (1998), 107-30.
29. Such as the remuneration, retirement and housing of the administers of the cult; the appointment of almoners in the army, hospitals and prisons; the construction and the maintenance of religion buildings; religious education in public schools, etc.
30. A. Overbeeke (1993), 109.
31. R. Strijp, "Moslims in Nederland en Belgiē," in In het huis van de islam-Geografie, geschiedenis, geloofsleer, cultuur, economie, politiek, ed. H. Driessen (Nijmegan: SUN, 1997), 419-20;
32. F. Dassetto and A. Bastenier, Médias U Akbar. Confrontations autour d'une manifestations. (Louvain-la-Neuve: CIACO, 1987).
33. J. Leman and D. Van Den Bulck, "De rechtspositie van de Islamitische Praxis in België," in De integratie van de islam in België anno 1993, Cultuur en Migratie, ed. Johan Leman ( 1992-2), 53.
34. KCM, 1989, 389-401.
35. A. Rea, "La politique des immigrés en Belgique," in M. Martiniello & M. Poncelet, Migrations et minorités ethniques dans l'espace européen (Bruxelles: De Boeck Université, 1993), 52.
36. Koninklijk Commissariaat voor het Migrantenbeleid, Integratiebeleid: een werk van lange adem, deel I: Bakens en eerste vorstellen (Brussels, 1989);
37. for a critical analysis of the concept of integration in Belgium: J. Blommaert and J. Verschueren, Debating Diversity. Analyzing the Discourse of Tolerance (London; Routledge, 1998).
38. Rea in Martiniello and M. Poncelet (1993), 149.
39. Blommaert and Verschueren (1998), 6.
40. Discourses on political Islam are broadly held in France, in the media as well in scientific discourse.
41. Hoge Raad van Moslims in België/Conseil Supérieur des musulmans de Belgique.
42. KCM (1989), 59 a.f.
43. The ICC did indeed dispose of the authority to organize the elections. It was stipulated in art. 2 of the Royal Decree of 1978 that the ICC had to organize the establishment of the first elected organizations of the local Muslim communities. Overbeeke (1993), 111
44. The Moroccan government as well as Diyanet called on them not to participate at the elections. Panafit, 1999, 210. The other mosques belong to Diyanet (Diyanet Isler Bakanligi). Diyanet is the Directorate of Religious Affairs of the Turkish government. Since the beginning of the 1980s, it is represented in Belgium by an official with diplomatic status. Central is to propagate a national, Turkish Islam. They also appoint Islamic teachers and imams to work in Belgium for a period of time.
45. Voorlopige Raad van Wijzen/Conseil Provisoire de Sages pour l'organisation du culte islamique.
46. These are teachers of Islamic religion at public schools. Since the formal recognition of Islam in Belgium in 1974, Islamic religious education is offered to Muslim pupils at public schools. Despite legislation, their employment statute has not been properly regulated yet and payment has been poor. Since there has not been an official Head of Cult, which has to appoint Islamic teachers, this statute has remained a problem. Since 1997 a diploma in Dutch language, pedagogic, didactics and Islam is compulsory. However, there is a chronic shortage of teachers who fulfil these demands. There is no inspection of the contents of the lessons.
47. Panafit (1999), 203.
48. Blaise and de Coorebyter, in Coenen and Lewin (1997), 233.
49. Voorlopige Executieve/Executif Provisoire des musulmans de Belgique
50. After a first list was given to the Minister of Justice, 3 candidates were refused because they were linked to so-called radical movements, i.e., Milli Görüs and the Muslim Brotherhood. Panafit (1999), 215.
51. Overbeeke ( 1993), 111.
52. Panafit (1999), 204.
53. Urgent matters were, among others: 1) creating of a theology-training program; 2) training for Islamic teachers and regulation of their legal status; 3) determining the content of the lessons in Islamic religion and the appointing an inspectorate; 4) appointing, remunerating and training almoners and imams; 5) attributing corporate personality for the bodies responsible for the administration of the goods of the cult and also the regulation of government support for this organ; 6) intervention of the province in the administration of the mosques and the prayer rooms; 7) regulation concerning the housing of imams by the province; 8) organization of religious broadcasting on radio and television as well in religious publications. Manço and Renaerts, in Manço (2000), 95.
54. "J'affirme sur l'honneur adhérer à la religion islamique, en respecter les prescriptions et les enseignements de fraternité, de tolérance et de probité, et m'engager à agir dans le cadre de mes fonctions dans l'intérêt exclusif du culte et cela dans le respect de la Constitution du Royaume, des Lois et des Institutions du peuple belge. " Panafit (1999), 221.
55. Herman de Ley, "Islam in Belgium: ala turka?," CIE Newsletter, 1/1 (februari 1999): 42.
56. This 'supervision-commission' consists out of seven members appointed by the Minister of Justice; three are members of the Provisional Council (a body created in 1994, after negotiations with the different parties), one representative of the Minister of Justice, one of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, one of the CGKR and a magistrate as chairman.
57. Panafit (1999), 229.
58. Dassetto (1997), 18-34.