Neither peace nor justice: Political violence and the peasantry in Northern Uganda, 1986-1998

African Studies Quarterly

Volumn 8, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 1-31

  Branch, Adam ^a  

^a Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals   (United States)

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EID: 27544459925     PISSN: 10932658     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (311)

1. This essay is based upon fieldwork carried out in Gulu and Kitgum districts, Uganda in July 2001, February-May 2003, January-February 2004, and October-November 2004. It is based upon interviews and discussions with those involved in the conflict, in addition to a review of the relevant literature on the North produced by NGOs, academics, and independent researchers. Much of the data is taken from newspaper reports which were compiled with the help of the staff at Centre for Basic Research, Kampala, and the staff at Main Library, Makerere University. I have not identified those I interviewed for the sake of their security.
2. Uncertainty, which Sverker Finnstrom associated with the existential position of the Acholi living in the conflict zone, is no less a hallmark of the discourse surrounding the war on the academic, policy, and governmental levels.
3. On the importance of bringing the peasantry back into the analysis, see Thandika Mkandawire, "The Terrible Toll of Post-Colonial 'Rebel Movements' in Africa: Towards an Explanation of the Violence against the Peasantry," Journal of Modern African Studies, 40.2 (2002): 181-215.
4. International Crisis Group, "Northern Uganda: Understanding and Solving the Conflict," ICG Africa Report No. 77, Nairobi /Brussels, 14 April 2004, pp. 13-18.
5. See also Frank Van Acker, "Uganda and the Lord's Resistance Army: The New Order No One Ordered," African Affairs, 103.412 (2004): 335-357, p. 353.
6. ICG 17.
7. Author's interview, Major Shaban Bantariza, UPDF Spokesman, Kampala, 23 October 2004.
8. See also Van Acker's analysis, pp. 352-353.
9. Author's interviews with Acholi political and cultural leaders, Gulu and Kampala, March 2003.
10. For accusations of genocide, see below.
11. ICG 11.
12. ICG 11-12.
13. For example, President Museveni's speech in Kaunda Grounds, Gulu Town on International Women's Day, 2003, at which the author was present.
14. ICG 12.
15. Finnstrom 155.
16. For a particularly dramatic portrayal of donor's willingness to support the Northern conflict, see Peter Chapell's documentary film, Our Friends at the Bank (France, 1997). I was told by a European defense analyst that the Ugandan government consistently purchases military equipment earmarked for the war in the North that is irrelevant to that conflict and is in fact much more appropriate to the war in Congo; confidential communication, European defense analyst, Kampala, April 2003.
17. Ruddy Doom and Koen Vlassenroot, "Kony's Message: A New Koine? The Lord's Resistance Army in Northern Uganda," African Affairs, 98.390 (1999): 5-36, p. 31.
18. For more on this current fixation, see Mkandawire, "The Terrible Toll of Post-Colonial 'Rebel Movements' in Africa."
19. Refugee Law Project (RLP), "Behind the Violence: Causes, Consequences, and the Search for Solutions to the War in Northern Uganda," Working Paper 11, February 2004: 28;
20. Van Acker 353; ICG 17-18.
21. Interview with MP Reagan Okumu, Kampala, 28 October 2004; interviews with human rights activists, local community leaders in Gulu District October-December 2004.
22. See also RLP 27; ICG 11.
23. In the field of political science, see Stathis Kalyvas, Stathis Kalyvas, "Wanton and Senseless? The Logic of Massacres in Algeria," Rationality and Society 11.3 (1999): 243-286.
24. Finnstrom 149-161.
25. "Girls Escape Ugandan Rebels," BBC Online, 25 June 2003, available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/l/hi/world/africa/3018810.stm.
26. See also Finnstrom's critique of this position, Finnstrom 158-159.
27. Gerard Prunier, "Rebel Movements and Proxy Warfare: Uganda, Sudan and the Congo (1986-1999)," African Affairs, 103.412 (2004): 359-383, p. 359.
28. Van Acker 348.
29. Van Acker 349.
30. Van Acker 354.
31. Doom & Vlassenroot 5.
32. Doom & Vlassenroot 23.
33. Doom & Vlassenroot 25-26.
34. Doom & Vlassenroot 26.
35. Doom & Vlassenroot 26.
36. Doom & Vlassenroot 28.
37. Doom & Vlassenroot 27.
38. Doom & Vlassenroot 27.
39. Doom & Vlassenroot 26.
40. Gersony 103.
41. Gersony 44.
42. Gersony 51.
43. Gersony 50.
44. RLP 15-17.
45. Finnstrom 165.
46. Finnstrom 161-172.
47. Finnstrom 161-164, 169-170.
48. Finnstrom 165.
49. ICG 5.
50. ICG 9.
51. Ibid.
52. On human rights' claim to be the only legitimate language in which to express resistance in the Third World, see Balakrishnan Rajagopal, International Law from Below: Development, Social Movements and Third World Resistance (Cambridge: Cambridge, 2003).
53. Chris Dolan makes this point about the demonization of the LRA through the exclusive emphasis on children's rights in discussions of the conflict; see his "Which Children Count? The Politics of Children's Rights in Northern Uganda," available at http://www.cr.org/accord/uganda/accord11/children.shtml.
54. Gersony 103.
55. Finnstrom 162.
56. These were reportedly the targets of the LRA's 2003 move east; see ICG 7-8.
57. Amii Omara-Otunnu, Politics and the Military in Uganda, 1890-1985 (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, 1987).
58. See, for example, Phares Mukasa Mutibwa, Uganda since Independence: A Story of Unfulfilled Hopes (London: Hurst, 1992): 154-5;
59. Odonga Ori Amazi, Museveni's Long March from Guerrilla to Statesman (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 1998): 23-38.
60. Critics have made much of Museveni's November, 1985 interview with Nairobi-based Drum magazine, where he explicitly stated that the "political mess" in Uganda was a result of misrule by Northerners, and called for unity among Bantu speakers in response; Drum Magazine (East), October 1985, p. 9.
61. Dani Nabudere is one such critic, see his, "The Hidden War, the Forgotten People," Makerere University Human Rights and Peace Centre, October 2003.
62. See also Omara-Otunnu 176.
63. Refugee Law Project plays down this interview, pointing out that it is invoked so frequently by critics because it is the only instance where Museveni made this claim so explicitly; see RLP 53.
64. For the importance of anti-Northern sentiment in the mobilization of the Baganda peasantry, see the generally laudatory Odonga ori Amaza, Museveni's Long March from Guerrilla to Statesman, p. 62;
65. and Sverker Finnstrom, Living with Bad Surroundings: War and Existential Uncertainty in Acholiland, Northern Uganda (Uppsala: Uppsala University, 2003): 108.
66. "NRA, Okello Forces fight for Karuma Falls," Weekly Focus, 7 February 1986.
67. Finnstrom 108.
68. "War gets rough in the North," Weekly Focus, 18 February 1986.
69. "Bazilio, Toko command 30,000 men to face NRA," Weekly Focus, 25 February 1986.
70. "NRA fighters meet set backs on Eastern front," Weekly Focus, 4 March 1986.
71. "Bazirio, sic. forces evacuate Kitgum, Arua Towns," Weekly Focus, 11 March 1986.
72. "NRA completes liberation struggle," Weekly Focus, 27 March 1986.
73. "Gulu: The Legacy of War," Financial Times (Kampala), 23 August 1986.
74. Heike Behrend "War in Northern Uganda: The Holy Spirit Movements of Alice Lakwena, Severino Lukoya, and Joseph Kony (1987-1997)" in African Guerrillas, ed. Christopher Clapham (Oxford, James Currey: 1998): 109;
75. Dennis Pain, 'The Bending of the Spears': Producing Consensus for Peace and Development in Northern Uganda (London: International Alert/Kacoke Madit, 1997): 48;
76. Amaza 62.
77. See A.G.G. Ginyera-Pinycwa, Northern Uganda in National Politics (Kampala: Fountain, 1992);
78. and, "Is There a 'Northern Question'?", in Conflict Resolution in Uganda, ed. Kumar Rupesinghe (London: J. Currey, 1989).
79. See, among others, Robert Gersony, The Anguish of Northern Uganda: Results of a Field-Based Assessment of the Civil Conflicts in Northern Uganda, (Kampala: USAID Mission, 1997): 21-23;
80. Amnesty International, Uganda: The Human Rights Record (1986-1989) (London: Amnesty International, 1989) and Uganda - Human Rights Violations by the National Resistance Army (London: Amnesty International, 1991).
81. "Gulu: The Legacy of War," Financial Times (Kampala), 23 August 1986;
82. "NRA soldier goes on shooting spree," Weekly Focus, 18 April 1986.
83. "Rebels harass NRA," The Citizen, date not printed. August 1986;
84. "Thugs Terrorise Gulu, Kitgum," Financial Times (Kampala), 19 June 1986.
85. Behrend 25;
86. Doom & Vlassenroot 13-14.
87. "Four NRA killed in Kitgum," Financial Times (Kampala), 8 July 1986.
88. "Insecurity grips Gulu, Kitgum," Financial Times (Kampala), 14 August 1986.
89. Gersony 22.
90. "Museveni explains situation in Northern Uganda," Focus, 27 February 1987.
91. "Govt. admits guerrilla attacks on NRA," Focus, 15 August 1986;
92. Behrend, "War in Northern Uganda," 24-25.
93. "Horror in Gulu: A personal account," Weekly Topic, 25 February 1987.
94. Interviews in Atiak, Pabo internment camps, March 2003.
95. "Govt. troops close Catholic Mission in Northern Uganda," Focus, 5 December 1986.
96. "Rebels draw up death lists," Focus, 6 February 1987;
97. "Northern rebels now turn against civilian population," Focus, 23 December 1986;
98. "Northern rebels storm Gulu," Focus, 24 February 1987.
99. "Gulu: The Legacy of War," Financial Times (Kampala), 23 August 1986.
100. The communique released by the Uganda Goodwill Mission after their trip to Sudan to consult with the UPDA listed the causes for which the UPDM/A was fighting: 1. Violation of Nairobi Peace Accords by NRM/A; 2. Invasion of Uganda by Rwandese in contravention of Geneva Convention 1951; 3. Killings of innocent people in Gulu and Kitgum; 4. NRM/A violations of human rights; 5. introduction of communistic ideology into Uganda; 6. dictatorship and discrimination by NRM/A. The basic principles for which UPDM/A stood included: 1. Fight for survival and preservation of human rights in Uganda as a whole; 2. Fight for freedom and unity of Uganda; 3. Fight for sovereignty, independence and unity of Uganda; 4. Promote democracy; 5. Fight for introduction of populist constitution; 6. Fight for establishment of disciplined and independent armed forces; 7. Promote true peace and prosperity for all people of Uganda. The list is found in, "Why Gulu - Kitgum rebels are fighting," Weekly Topic, 13 May 1987.
101. "Allimadi is imposter," New Vision, 7 April 1987.
102. "Violation of Human Rights: Govt's credibility is at stake," Citizen, 26 September 1986;
103. see also "Amnesty complains of NRA atrocities," Weekly Topic, 4 November 1987.
104. "Atrocities shake N. Uganda," Citizen, 5 September 1986.
105. "Govt. troops intensify operations," Focus, 19 December 1986.
106. "Bishop Ogwal ashames Acholis, Church of Uganda," Focus, 17 February 1987.
107. See "N. Uganda: Okeny petitions Museveni," The Citizen, 7 December 1988, in which Tiberio Okeny states that the NRA's "scorched earth policy" in Acholiland appears to many Acholi civilians to be "the implementation of the often publicly uttered statements by high ranking NRM officials to exterminate a people."
108. See also Gersony 12.
109. "Gulu witnesses brutality and atrocity," Weekly Topic, 2 December 1987; personal interviews Gulu District February 2003.
110. See also Chris Dolan, What do you remember? A rough guide to the war in Northern Uganda, 1986-2000 (London: ACORD Working Paper #33, 2000);
111. and Finnstrom 106-7.
112. For more on the importance of cattle, see Gersony 27-29.
113. "People kill, burn rebels in the North," Star, 25 March 1987.
114. "American says North improves," New Vision, 9 June 1987.
115. "Govt. admits guerrilla attacks on NRA," Focus, 15 August 1986;
116. see also Yoweri Museveni, Sowing the Mustard Seed (London: Macmillan, 1997): 33.
117. "Museveni Denounces Sudan's Treachery," New Vision, 25 August 1986.
118. "Northern consultative groups insist on total amnesty, peace talks," Focus, 21 October 1986.
119. "Museveni explains situation in Northern Uganda," Focus, 27 February 1987;
120. see also "NRA Sweeps North," New Vision, 16 September 1986.
121. "Museveni toughens on rebels," Star, 16 January 1987.
122. "Museveni tours rebels mass graves in the North," Focus, 14 October 1986;
123. see also Editorial, Weekly Topic, 29 October 1986;
124. and NRA Commander Elly Tumwiine's statement in "Rebels are in disarray," New Vision, 25 November 1986.
125. These points were made by the Northern Consultative Group in October, 1986, who called for amnesty and peace talks, arguing that the problem in the North was a political problem and the military option was making it worse; see, "Northern consultative groups insist on total amnesty, peace talks," Focus, 21 October 1986;
126. see also "Trouble in the North, by Mahmood," Weekly Topic, 27 August 1986.
127. "What Luwero teaches about the Northern question," Weekly Topic, 5 November 1986.
128. "Gulu: The Legacy of War," Financial Times (Kampala), 23 August 1986.
129. "Re-thinking the North-East, by Mahmood," Weekly Topic, 25 March 1987;
130. Ogen John Kevin Aliro, "Unconsidered issues in the 'Northern question'," Weekly Topic, 29 April 1987;
131. "NRM Lieutenants using wrong approach," Weekly Topic, 1 April 1987.
132. "What Luwero teaches about the Northern question", Weekly Topic, 11 May 1986;
133. "Crisis in the North: Government Officials also to blame," Weekly Topic, 17 September 1986.
134. "Behind the northern crisis," Weekly Topic, 3 September 1986.
135. "Re-thinking the North-East," Weekly Topic, 25 March 1987.
136. Editorial, Weekly Topic, 1 April 1987.
137. F. E. Etori, "War problem of democracy", Weekly Topic, 9 September 1987.
138. In February, according to one account, there were ten major rebel groups: Awach (3000 men), Adak group, Lalogi group, Alero, Lacor, Anaka, Purongo, Pabo, Atiak, Patiko; see "Horror in Gulu: A personal account," Weekly Topic, 25 February 1987.
139. "Northern rebels now turn against each other," Focus, 30 January 1987.
140. Ibid.
141. "Fighting continues in Lira and Apac," New Vision, 21 March 1987.
142. See in particular Heike Behrend, Alice and the Holy Spirits: War in Northern Uganda, 1985-97 (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 1999).
143. Amii Omara-Otunnu, "The Struggle for Democracy in Uganda," The Journal of Modern African Studies,30.3 (1992): 443-463.
144. July 17, 1987, Focus, "Rebels launch attack on Gulu."
145. See Mahmood Mamdani, And Fire Does Not Always Beget Ash: Critical Reflections on the NRM (Monitor Publications: Kampala, 1995): 50-52.
146. See "Lakwena attacks Magamaga," "Foreign press meets Lakwena," "Interview with a rebel," and "Lakwena not a military threat," New Vision, 26 October 1987;
147. "Lakwena affair proved that people are the best soldiers," Weekly Topic, 3 February 1988.
148. Behrend 76.
149. "Bloody 'battle' at Koch Goma: Peace disrupted again," Weekly Topic, 9 March 1988.
150. "A footnote to Lakwena debacle," Weekly Topic, 27 January 1988.
151. "Opinion: Situation in Gulu is Unbearable," 16 June 1987.
152. "Kenya becomes rebels' rear base," Weekly Topic, 26 August 1987.
153. "Insane happenings in the 'northern' war," Weekly Topic, 24 June 1987.
154. "Life in Gulu, Apac remains appalling," Financial Times (Kampala), 29 June 1987.
155. "The fire burns again in Gulu," Weekly Topic, 12 April 1991.
156. "Gulu witnesses brutality and atrocity," Weekly Topic, 2 December 1987;
157. "Human rustling hits North-East," Financial Times (Kampala), 5 January 1988.
158. "Why Gulu - Kitgum rebels are fighting," Weekly Topic, 13 May 1987;
159. see also "Rebels cut off parts of N. Uganda," The Citizen, 12 September 1986;
160. "Gulu District held incommunicado?", Financial Times (Kampala), 25 May 1987;
161. and "Over 70,000 displaced by war in North-East," Weekly Topic, 16 January 1987.
162. "Talk with Rebels says Okeny," New Vision, 2 December 1987.
163. For reports on NRA violence, see "Amnesty concerned at reports of killings in the North," Weekly Topic, 14 December 1988;
164. for the failure to protect the Acholi civilians, see "100,000 displaced in Gulu," New Vision, 14 November 1988;
165. and "NRM officials narrowly escape rebel attack," The Citizen, 3 May 1989, where the NRA admitted problems with its defense of Gulu town, after a large group of rebels entered the town, yelling and singing, and assaulted the hotel where the NRM officials were staying without any response from the NRA soldiers.
166. See also "NRA mops up in the North," New Vision, 18 March 18, which reports that the NRA troops in the area want the war to continue because of "operational allowances" and because they see it as intra-Acholi violence.
167. For testimonies that civilians "feel that both the Holy Spirit and the NRA are no longer fighting each other but they, the civilians," see "Rebels promote Latek," New Vision, 1 November 1988.
168. For genocide, see "N. Uganda: Okeny petitions Museveni," The Citizen, 7 December 1988, where Okeny states that the NRA's "scorched earth policy" in Acholiland appears to many Acholi civilians to be "the implementation of the often publicly uttered statements by high ranking NRM officials to exterminate a people."
169. As usual, the fact that the NRA actually has to defend itself against these accusations speaks to the accusations' broad appeal: see "Holy Spirit enters Kitgum," New Vision, 16 November 1988, where an NRA officer argues that, "The government troops are not out to wipe the Acholi. Some civilians believe that the government troops are in a sort of campaign to wipe them out."
170. "Was NRM taken for a ride in N. Uganda?," The Citizen, 29 August 1988.
171. On negotiations between Kony's forces and NRA in Gulu, see "Holy Spirit talks continue," New Vision, April 16,1988;
172. and "NRA, UPDA in final talks," New Vision, 11 April 1988.
173. Caroline Lamwaka, "The Peace Process in Northern Uganda, 1986-1990," ed. Conciliation Resources, London, Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives (2002): 31.
174. "Holy Spirit Movement in a dilemma," New Vision, 19 July 1988;
175. "Kitgum rebels resume attacks," New Vision, 30 January 1991;
176. "Rebels abduct Gulu RC V Women Secretary," The Guide, 14 March 1991.
177. "Civilians escape Gulu rebels," New Vision, 19 February 1991.
178. "Holy Spirit smashed in Kitgum, Latek flees to Sudan," New Vision, 22 November 1988.
179. "'Anti-Lakwena' dismissals hit Gulu," The Citizen, 14 June 1989.
180. "Army, RCs relations deteriorate in Gulu," The Guide, 10 May 1990.
181. Oyoo P'Okeny, Editorial, Weekly Topic, 11 January 1991.
182. "Calm restored in Gulu," New Vision, 21 July 1989;
183. "Peace returns to Gulu: What next?", Weekly Topic, 20 September 1989.
184. "Rebels in Kitgum hack 43 to death," New Vision, 11 April 1990;
185. "Over 300 feared killed in Gulu crossfire," The Guide, 27 April 1990;
186. "NRA, DA accused of rights violation in Gulu," The Guide, 2 August 1990;
187. "Of civilians trapped between the army and rebels," Weekly Topic, 13 December 1990;
188. "Civilians escape Gulu rebels," New Vision, 19 February 1991.
189. Behrend, Alice Lakwena and the Holy Spirits, 188.
190. "NRA mops up in the North," New Vision, 18 March 1991;
191. "NRA launches search operation in the North," New Vision, 3 April 1991.
192. "Lira radios seized," New Vision, 4 April 1991.
193. "Kitgum DA replaced," New Vision, 6 April 1991;
194. and "Atubo arrested," New Vision, 17 April 1991.
195. "Gulu gets Easter 'panda gari,'" Weekly Topic, 12 April 1991.
196. The Citizen, 24 April 1991, gives details abuses of detainees, dozens killed, scores tortured, looting, and rapes; I have had the locations of mass graves dating from this period pointed out to me in the course of my fieldwork in Acholiland.
197. "Museveni refutes brutality claims," New Vision, 14 May 1991;
198. see also ":Minister, CMs in court for treason," New Vision, 8 May 1991.
199. "3000 rebels netted in Kitgum," New Vision, 14 May 1991.
200. "Tinyefuza welcomes Red Cross," New Vision, 15 May 1991.
201. "Kitgum forms peoples' battalions," New Vision, 17 May 1991;
202. "Gulu forms 'arrow' battalions," The Economy, 4 June 1991.
203. Behrend Alice Lakwena and the Holy Spirits, 189;
204. "Kitgum stabilizes," New Vision, 30 July 1991.
205. "Kitgum rebels burn 14 in hut," New Vision, 4 June 1991.
206. "Kony rebels threaten," New Vision, 26 April 1994.
207. "Kony still in Kitgum," New Vision, 5 July 1991.
208. "Gulu assured of unity, peace," New Vision, 12 June 1991.
209. Ibid.
210. "Over 1500 rebels killed," Weekly Topic, 9 August 1991.
211. "Tinyefuza ends Operation North," New Vision, 30 July 1991;
212. and "Word of advice to Betty Bigombe," Weekly Topic, 26 July 1991.
213. "Rebels massacre over 60 civilians," The Guide, 24 October 1991.
214. "Where tears and pain never seem to end," Weekly Topic, 20 September 1991.
215. October 24, 1991 The Guide, "Rebels massacre over 60 civilians."
216. Confidential interviews, Kampala February 2003, Gulu District April 2003.
217. "Kony rules revealed," New Vision, 14 February 1992.
218. Billie O'Kadameri, "LRA/Government Negotiations 1993-1994," ed. Conciliation Resources, London, Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives (2002): 34-41.
219. "Kony wants UN role," New Vision, 22 February 1994.
220. "Bigombe, rebels meet in forest," New Vision, 1 December 1993;
221. "Spirits give green light: Kony to meet Museveni," Daily Topic, 13 January 1994;
222. "Museveni and Kony, make peace," Monitor, 25 February 1994;
223. "Kony rebels reject Museveni's ultimatum?", Monitor, 18 February 1994.
224. "Kony rebels minor problem - Museveni," New Vision, 25 February 1994.
225. "Atrocities in Northern fighting: Secrets of NRA-Kony war exposed," Monitor, 11 March 1994;
226. see also "Blood, tears flow in Guluwar," Monitor, 29 March 1994.
227. "Gulu attacks spread," Daily Topic, 23 February 1994;
228. "Kony rebels burn minister's Pajero," New Vision, 23 February 1994;
229. "Fighting erupts in Gulu," Daily Topic, 21 February 1994;
230. "Rebels abduct women," New Vision, 13 May 1994;
231. "Kony abducts 50," New Vision, 14 May 1994;
232. "Havoc as Kony goes for RCs," Daily Topic, 25 May 1994.
233. "Kony rebels burn minister's Pajero," New Vision, 23 February 1994;
234. "Kony rebels play soccer," 18 June 1994;
235. "Otunnu to meet Kony in Sudan," New Vision, 28 July 1994.
236. "Kony gets new foreign arms supply," Monitor, 15 July 1994.
237. Ibid.
238. "Why NRM has failed in North - Bigombe," Daily Topic, 14 June 1994.
239. "NRA rapped for 'fearing' Kony rebels," Monitor, 23 August 1995;
240. "Defence confirms Kony rebel attack," New Vision, 19 August 1995;
241. "North border brings big headaches," Monitor, 21 August 1995;
242. "Kitgum rocked as Kony rebels change tactics," Sunday Vision, 27 August 1995.
243. "Museveni and Kony, make peace," Monitor, 25 February 1994;
244. Amaza 136.
245. "Kony intransigent," New Vision, 23 March 1994;
246. "Kony gets new foreign arms supply," Monitor, 15 July 1994;
247. "Sudan disowns Kony," Daily Topic, 3 August 1994.
248. "Five civilians killed," New Vision, 15 March 1994.
249. "Kony rebels get better weapons," Sunday Vision, 20 March 1994.
250. "Kony abducts boys for Sudan military camps," Monitor, 19 October 1994;
251. "Kony flees to Sudan confirms Brig Shef Ali," New Vision, 3 November 1994.
252. "SPLA executes Kony prisoners," New Vision, 18 January 1995;
253. "Terror as rebel mines blow up 23," Monitor, 15 February 1995.
254. "Disband Kony rebels, Museveni tells Sudan," New Vision, 3 May 1995;
255. "Why has NRA failed to finish off Kony," Monitor, 12 May 1995;
256. see also "Let someone take Kony as cheap labour," Monitor, 8 May 1995, in which Museveni blames Sudan's intention to export Islam throughout the continent.
257. "Kony abducts, Children," New Vision, 20 February 1995;
258. "Slavery returns: Sudanese dealers buy 110 Ugandan kids," New Vision, 7 February 1995.
259. "SPLA fighters kill 36 Kony rebels," New Vision, 3 November 1995;
260. "SPLA rescues 100 children," New Vision, 7 November 1995.
261. "Kony supporters are demoralized - Bigombe," New Vision, 12 December 1995;
262. "Itongwa, Kony finished says Maj. Gen. Mugisha Muntu," Monitor, 8-11 December 1995.
263. "Kony rebels enter Uganda," New Vision, 13 February 1996;
264. "Kony attacks Kitgum," New Vision, 15 February 1996.
265. "Kony wants to disrupt elections," New Vision, 17 February 1996.
266. "Museveni telling lies about Kony?", Crusader, 23 February 1996;
267. "Can Shefe Ali bring peace to Acholiland?", The People, 21 February 1996;
268. "Sifting truth from hollow lies on Kony," Monitor, 23 February 1996.
269. "Kony rebels hit Gulu," New Vision, 30 March 1996;
270. "Museveni rejects Kony peace talks," New Vision, 15 March 1996.
271. "Huge demos planned against Govt, Kony," Monitor, 13 March 1996.
272. "LRA rebels to honour ceasefire - spokesman," New Vision, 28 April 1996.
273. "Gulu in big panic: Kony fights for multipartyism," New Vision, 6 March 1996;
274. "Kony rebels hold political rallies," Sunday Vision, 14 April 1996;
275. "Kony rallies OK, says Ssemogerere," New Vision, 16 April 1996;
276. "Kony rebels vow to take part in May elections," Monitor, 22 April 1996.
277. "Rebels blame Baganda," New Vision, 14 May 1996.
278. "Kony rebels plan attack," New Vision, 29 May 1996;
279. "200 rebels on rampage as PM Kintu enters Gulu," Monitor, 7 June 1996.
280. "Saleh announces North offensive," New Vision, 20 June 1996;
281. "No more talks with Kony - Saleh," Crusader, 18 July 1996.
282. Museveni's official decree ordering the creation of the camps came out in September 27, and wide-scale forcible displacement began on October 2; Human Rights Focus, Between Two Fires: The Plight of IDPs in Northern Uganda (Gulu Town: HURIFO, 2002): 11.
283. WFP Emergency Report No. 41 of 8 October 2004.
284. Acholi Religious Leaders' Peace Initiative, Let my People Go: The Forgotten Plight of the People in the Displaced Camps in Acholi (Gulu Town: Gulu Archdiocese, July 2001): 8-10;
285. Human Rights Focus 16-24.
286. Senior Presidential Adviser Major Kakooza Mutale, quoted in Human Rights Focus 18.
287. RLP 30.
288. "9000 homeguards to counter Kony," Sunday Vision, 23 October 1994;
289. "EC envoys assess Sudan-Kony threat," New Vision, 1 December 1994.
290. "Scores killed as NRA hits back," Monitor, 25 January 1995;
291. "Slavery returns: Sudanese dealers buy 110 Ugandan kids," New Vision, 7 February 1995.
292. "Kony rebels massacre 82," New Vision, 22 April 1995;
293. "Kony toll rises," New Vision, 24 April 1995;
294. "Atiak's longest day of the bullet," Sunday Vision, 30 April 1995.
295. "Homeguards kill six Kony rebels," New Vision, 28 April 1995;
296. "Govt to be sued over Atiak massacre," Monitor, 19 May 1995.
297. Confidential Interviews, May 2003, Gulu District.
298. Human Rights Focus 29.
299. Confidential interviews, Gulu, May 2003.
300. Human Rights Focus 27-30.
301. Human Rights Focus 30.
302. Confidential Interviews, March-April 2003, Gulu District.
303. Ibid.
304. Ibid.
305. See Acholi Religious Leader's Peace Initiative 12;
306. Finnstrom 197-200;
307. and Amnesty International, Breaking the Circle: Protecting Human Rights in the Northern War Zone (London: Amnesty International, March 1999).
308. Confidential Interviews, March- April 2003, Gulu District.
309. Human Rights Focus 10.
310. See Finnstrom's excellent exposition of this dilemma in Finnstrom 161-172. The only other organization with enough of a constituency to make serious demands is the Church, embodied in the Acholi Religious Leaders' Peace Initiative. Indeed, they are the only organization that has consistently demanded the dismantling of the camps, precisely as they are not entirely beholden to foreign funds. It remains to be seen whether or not ARLPI will continue to voice the demands of the Acholi in the camps.
311. In this context, the International Criminal Court's current pursuit of "justice" in Northern Uganda is not to the point, limited as it is to the punishment of Kony and his top commanders.