Translating science, translating empire: The power of language in Colonial North India

Comparative Studies in Society and History

Volumn 47, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 809-835

  Dodson, Michael S ^a  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COLONIALISM; CULTURE; LANGUAGE;

ASIA; EASTERN HEMISPHERE; EURASIA; INDIA; SOUTH ASIA; WORLD;

EID: 27144476975     PISSN: 00104175     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0010417505000368     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. See, for example, E. Cheyfitz, The Poetics of Imperialism: Translation and Colonization from the Tempest to Tarzan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).
2. B. Cohn, "The Command of Language and the Language of Command," repr. in his Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997).
3. See, for example, T. Niranjana, Siting Translation: History, Post-Structuralism, and the Colonial Context (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).
4. See K. Teltscher, India Inscribed: European and British Writing on India 1600-1800 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995), 211-15;
5. also, S. Bassnett and H. Trivedi, "Introduction," in S. Bassnett and H. Trivedi, eds., Post-Colonial Translation: Theory and Practice (London: Routledge, 1999).
6. This term is adapted from L. Venuti, The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (London: Routledge, 1995), 19-20.
7. Bassnett and Trivedi, "Introduction."
8. See E. F. Irschick, Dialogue and History: Constructing South India, 1795-1895 (London: University of California Press, 1994).
9. Genesis 11, "The Dispersion of the Nations at Babel." See http://www.bible.org/netbible/.
10. J. Bryant, A New System; Or an Analysis of Antient Mythology: Wherein an Attempt is Made to Divest Tradition of Fable; and to Reduce the Truth to Its Original Purity (London: T. Payne, 1774-1776).
11. See especially W. Jones, Discourses, Delivered at the Asiatick Society, 1785-1792 (London: Routledge and Thoemmes Press, 1993 [1807]).
12. For secondary works on the historiographical method of Jones, and in particular his relationship to Bryant, see H. Aarsleff, The Study of Language in England, 1780-1860 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), ch. 4;
13. J. Majeed, Ungoverned Imaginings: James Mill's The History of British India and Orientalism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), ch. 1;
14. and T. R. Trautmann, Aryans and British India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), ch. 2.
15. H. Aarsleff, "Locke's Influence," in V. Chappell, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Locke (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 271.
16. Ibid., 272-73.
17. See also Aarsleff, The Study of Language in England.
18. Also, R. Harris and T. J. Taylor, Landmarks in Linguistic Thought 1: The Western Tradition from Socrates to Saussure, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 1997), chs. 11-12.
19. A. Humboldt, On Language: On the Diversity of Human Language Construction and Its Influence on the Mental Development of the Human Species, M. Losonsky, ed., P. Heath, trans. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
20. Ibid., 24.
21. See also Losonsky's "Introduction," xi.
22. See Losonsky's "Introduction"
23. also Hans Aarsleff's "Introduction" to the 1988 Cambridge University Press edition,
24. and Harris and Taylor, Landmarks in Linguistic Thought, ch. 13.
25. Humboldt, On Language, 49.
26. See also M. Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London: Routledge, 1970), ch. 8, esp. p. 290.
27. I use the term "orientalist" here to indicate an East India Company administrator-scholar interested in the "orient," rather than necessarily in the Said's sense of the word. This is not to say, of course, that "orientalists" were not Orientalist in significant ways, but simply that one need not wholly identify the two terms without further consideration. See E. W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1979).
28. W. Carey, A Grammar of the Sungskrit Language, Composed from Works of the Most Esteemed Grammarians, to which are Added Examples for the Exercise of the Student, and a Complete List of the Dhatoos, or Roots (Serampore: Mission Press, 1806), iii.
29. H. T. Colebrooke, "On the Sanscrit and Pracrit Languages," repr. in Miscellaneous Essays (London: W. H. Allen and Co., 1837), vol. 2, p. 2. Originally in Asiatick Researches 7 (Calcutta: 1801), 199-231.
30. H. H. Wilson, A Dictionary, Sanscrit and English: Translated, Amended and Enlarged, from an Original Compilation Prepared by Learned Natives for the College of Fort William (Calcutta: Hindostanee Press, 1819), "Dedication."
31. N. B. Halhed, A Grammar of the Bengal Language (Hoogly: 1778), iii.
32. Of course, this status of Sanskrit, and of India's civilizational heritage, was often challenged by liberal thinkers such as James Mill. See his The History of British India, 5th ed., H. H. Wilson, ed. (London: James Madden, 1858).
33. See also, for example, Majeed, Ungoverned Imaginings, ch. 4;
34. Trautmann, Aryans and British India, ch. 4;
35. and U. S. Mehta, Liberalism, and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought (London: University of Chicago Press, 1999), esp. ch. 3.
36. Carey, Grammar of the Sungskrit Language;
37. H. T. Colebrooke, A Grammar of the Sanscrit Language (Calcutta: Honorable Company's Press, 1805);
38. C. Wilkins, A Grammar of the Sanskrita Language (London: W. Blumer and Co., 1808). Wilkins, in particular, pointed out that the study of Sanskrit should appeal to those interested in the "structure and affinity of languages," as well as those interested in the ancient history, literature, and philosophy of India. See his "Preface."
39. See Alexander Hamilton's anonymous review, entitled, "A Grammar of the Sanskrita Language, by Charles Wilkins, London, 1808," in The Edinburgh Review 13, 26 (Jan. 1809), 367.
40. Wilkins, Grammar of the Sanskrita Language, 1.
41. W. Jones, "Tbe Third Anniversary Discourse, Delivered 2 February, 1786, by the President," repr. in Jones, Discourses, 34.
42. Carey, Grammar of the Sungskrit Language, iv.
43. See Wilson's 1819 A Dictionary, Sanscrit and English, as well as Colebrooke's 1808 Translation of the Sanskrit Lexicon, the Amerakośa, for Use at the College of Fort William. H. T. Colebrooke, trans., Cosha, or Dictionary of the Sanscrit Language, by Amera Sinha. With an English Interpretation, and Annotation (Serampoor: N.p., 1808).
44. Jones, "Third Anniversary Discourse," 33-34.
45. Colebrooke substantiated his argument by reference to etymology. For example, he noted that the word sat in Sanskrit means "existent," from which can be derived in Sanskrit the word satya, meaning "true" or "truth." The Hindi word for this is sac, which Colebrooke argues is derived from satya by dropping the final vowel, substituting "j" for "y," and then transforming "tj" to the more harmonious "ch." See Colebrooke, "On the Sanscrit and Pracrit Languages," 24-25.
46. See also H. H. Wilson, An Introduction to the Grammar of the Sanskrit Language, for the Use of Early Students (London: J. Madden and Co., 1847), x.
47. Colebrooke, "On the Sanscrit and Pracrit Languages," 25.
48. Hamilton used this analogy in his review article, "A Grammar of the Sanskrita Language," 369.
49. W. Carey, A Dictionary of the Bengalee Language, in which the Words are Traced to Their Origin, and Their Various Meanings Given (Serampore: Mission Press, 1815), see "Preface."
50. Ibid., viii-ix.
51. Wilkins, A Grammar of the Sanskrita Language, x-xi.
52. L. Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity - China, 1900-1937 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), esp. 3-6.
53. Ibid., 4.
54. P. Breton, A Vocabulary of the Names of the Various Parts of the Human Body and of Medical and Technical Terms in English, Arabic, Persian, Hindee and Sanscrit, for the Use of the Members of the Medical Department in India (Calcutta: Government Lithographic Press, 1825). Breton was assisted in making this compilation by H. H. Wilson, who had originally come to India on the Company's medical service.
55. Ibid., "Preface," n.p. Yet somewhat incongruously, Breton also noted that despite the "inadequate knowledge of medical science and Anatomy," the "natives" were still able to perform "admirable cures and delicate operations" with great success.
56. British Library, London (henceforth BL), Oriental and India Office Collection of the British Library (henceforth OIOC), Board's Collection, F/4/1846, No. 77633, "Minute" of T. B. Macaulay, 2 Feb. 1835, 144. The Governor-General, William Bentinck, later enshrined many of Macaulay's suggestions in government education policy. See BL, OIOC, Board's Collection, F/4/1846, No. 77633, "Resolution of the Governor-General of India in Council in the General Department," 7 Mar. 1835, 161-63.
57. BL, OIOC, Board's Collection, F/4/1846, No. 77638, "Minute by the Right Honorable the Governor General of India," 24 Nov. 1839, 5-75. The contents of this Minute were confirmed by the 20 Jan. 1841 despatch of the Court of Directors. See BL, OIOC, Public and Judicial Department Records L/P&J/3/1015 (Public Department No. 1 of 1841), "Despatch of the Honorable the Court of Directors to the Governor General of India in Council." Note also that in 1844 responsibility for education in northern India was transferred from Calcutta to the Government of the North-Western Provinces (NWP) at Agra. James Thomason, the Lieutenant-Governor of NWP, endorsed Auckland's position through his continued support of education in "useful knowledge" in Sanskrit and the Indian vernaculars.
58. See, particularly, L. Wilkinson, "On the Use of the Siddhantas in the Work of Native Education," Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 3 (1834), 504-19.
59. See also, for analyses of Wilkinson, C. A. Bayly, Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780-1870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), ch. 7;
60. G. Prakash, "Science Between the Lines," in, S. Amin and D. Chakrabarty, eds., Subaltern Studies IX: Writings on South Asian History and Society (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996);
61. and C. Z. Minkowski, "The Pandit as Public Intellectual: The Controversy over Virodha or Inconsistency in the Astronomical Sciences," in, A. Michaels, ed., The Pandit: Traditional Scholarship in India (Delhi: Manohar, 2001).
62. Among the texts meant are the mathematical works in Marathi of George Ritso Jarvis, of the Bombay Engineers. See par. 12, "Minute" of Lord Auckland, 24 Nov. 1839.
63. J. J. Moore, "Proposal for Printing by Subscription, the Following Sanscrit Works, Recommended for Publication by L. Wilkinson, Esq., of Sehore," in, L. Wilkinson, ed., The Gunitadhia, or A Treatise on Astronomy, with a Commentary Entitled The Mitacshara, Forming the Third Portion of the Siddhant Shiromuni, by Bhaskara Acharya (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1842), 8.
64. This sub-committee was composed of E. Ryan, H. T. Prinsep, F. Millett, J.C.C. Sutherland, and Prosonocoomar Tagore. See General Report of the Late General Committee of Public Instruction for 1840-41 and 1841-42 (Calcutta: William Rushton and Co., 1842), App. VI, "Report of the Sub-Committee, Appointed at the Meeting of the General Committee of Public Instruction, Held on the 29th July, 1841, for Collecting and Arranging the Information Necessary for the Preparation of the Scheme of Vernacular School Books," xxxv-li.
65. Indeed, by late 1843, with the imminent devolution of educational responsibilities from the central government at Calcutta, it was decided that the responsibility for preparing all vernacular textbooks in Urdu and Hindi was to be transferred to the NWP Government at Agra. See letter No. 432, 20 Nov. 1843, from Under Secretary to the Government of Bengal C. Beadon to Secretary to the Government of NWP R.N.C. Hamilton, quoted in General Report on Public Instruction in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency for 1843-44 (Agra: Agra Ukhbar Press, n.d.), 3-4.
66. BL, OIOC, Board's Collection, F/4/1846, No. 77633, "Minute" of T. B. Macaulay, 2 Feb. 1835, 144.
67. General Report on Public Instruction ⋯ 1843-44, 7.
68. "Minute of F. Boutros on Delhi College," 1 July 1842, in General Report of the Late General Committee of Public Instruction for 1840-41 and 1841-42, App. XV, cxxv-xvi.
69. General Report on Public Instruction ... 1843-44, 7.
70. "Minute of F. Boutros," 10 Jan. 1844, in General Report on Public Instruction ... 1843-44, App. N, lxxii-xix.
71. The yearly General Report on Public Instruction normally listed in an appendix titles that had been published in the previous year, either at Delhi College or by the Agra School Book Society. See, for example, "Appendix A" in General Report on Public Instruction in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency, for 1844-45 (Agra: Secundra Orphan Press, 1846), i.
72. This is not to say that Hindi books were not published, nor widely available, for they were. The number of Hindi books available for educators in the NWP, however, tended to be much smaller than Urdu books, and sometimes also of a much older vintage. Adam's translation of Stewart's Historical Anecdotes, which first appeared under the Hindi title Upadeśa Kathā in an 1825 publication from Calcutta, was still being offered in 1844 as a standard Hindi text in NWP. See General Report on Public Instruction ⋯ 1843-44, App. S, "List of Books in Hindi Generally Used in Schools and Colleges of the North Western Provinces."
73. The Rev. J. J. Moore, the Urdu Translator to Government, and Secretary of the Agra School Book Society, was appointed Curator of School Books in September 1844. See General Report on Public Instruction in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency for 1844-45, 2-3;
74. also App. B of the same report, which reprints a letter from J. Thornton, Sec. to Govt. NWP, to Rev. J. J. Moore, 2 Sept. 1844, ii-iii.
75. The publication of this journal is discussed in G. Minault, "Qiran al-Sa ādain: The Dialogue Between Eastern and Western Learning at Delhi College," in, J. Malik, ed., Perspectives of Mutual Encounters in South Asian History, 1760-1860 (Leiden: Brill, 2000). The publication of this Urdu periodical is first suggested by Boutros in "Minute of F. Boutros," 10 Jan. 1844, in General Report on Public Instruction ... 1843-44.
76. General Report on Public Instruction in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency for 1845-46 (Agra: Secundra Orphan Press, 1847), 5.
77. Rajendralal Mitra notes that Boutros' translations "never were touched beyond the four walls of the college premises." See R. Mitra, A Scheme for the Rendering of European Scientific Terms into the Vernaculars of India (Calcutta: Thacker Spink & Co., 1877), 4.
78. For further details of J. R. Ballantyne and Benares College, see M. S. Dodson, "Re-Presented for the Pandits: James Ballantyne, 'Useful Knowledge,' and Sanskrit Scholarship in Benares College during the Mid-Nineteenth Century," in Modern Asian Studies 36, 2 (2002), 257-98.
79. J. R. Ballantyne, A Discourse on Translation, with Reference to the Educational Despatch of the Hon. Court of Directors of the 19th July 1854 (Mirzapore: Orphan School Press, 1855), 5. A revised and abbreviated version of this text can be found as an appendix to J. R. Ballantyne, Christianity Contrasted with Hindu Philosophy: An Essay, in Five Books, Sanskrit and English: With Practical Suggestions Tendered to the Missionary among the Hindus (London: James Madden, 1859).
80. B. H. Hodgson, Preeminence of the Vernaculars; or the Anglicists Answered. Being Two Letters on the Education of the People of India (Serampore: Serampore Press, 1837), 18-19. These letters were originally published in August and September of 1835 in Friend of India.
81. This is a phrase used by C. A. Bayly in his "Orientalists, Informants, and Critics in Banaras, 1790-1860," in, J. Malik, ed., Perspectives of Mutual Encounters in South Asian History. The terms "neo-orientalism" and "practical orientalism" have also often been used synonymously.
82. General Report on Public Instruction in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency for 1847-1848 (Agra: Secundra Orphan Press, 1849), 21.
83. J. R. Ballantyne, First Lessons in Sanskrit Grammar, Together with an Introduction to the Hitopadeśa (London: Trübner and Co., 1885 [1850]), 105.
84. J. R. Ballantyne, "Advertisement," in his A Synopsis of Science, in Sanskrit and English, Reconciled with the Truths to be Found in the Nyāya Philosophy, 2d ed. (Mirzapore: Orphan Press, 1856), i.
85. BL, OIOC, NWP, General Proceedings (of the North-Western Provinces) (GP), P/215/43 (20 Apr.-31 May 1855), No. 404 (26 Apr.), J. R. Ballantyne to J. Thomason, Lt. Governor of NWP, 20 Oct. 1852, par. 2.
86. Ballantyne, A Discourse on Translation, 12-13.
87. Ballantyne, Christianity Contrasted with Hindu Philosophy, v-vi.
88. Ibid., 194.
89. General Report on Public Instruction in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency for 1850-51 (Agra: Secundra Orphan Press, 1852), 52.
90. W. H. Mill, Proposed Version of Theological Terms, with a View to Uniformity in Translations of the Holy Scriptures etc. into the Various Languages of India (Calcutta: Bishop's College Press, n.d. [1828]).
91. Ibid., 1, 25-26.
92. Ibid., 4, 29.
93. J. R. Ballantyne, The Bible for Pandits, the First Three Chapters of Genesis, Diffusely and Unreservedly Commented, in Sanskrit and English (London: James Madden; Benares: Medical Hall Press, 1860), 3.
94. Ballanynte's use of the term diva for "heaven" is even more "neutral" than that of Mill, who wished to "Christianise" the Sanskrit term svarga away from its association with "the third heaven of Indra and the gods." H. H. Wilson, in contrast, preferred the use of the term dyu, which is a derivation of diva. See Mill, Proposed Version of Theological Terms, 23, 37.
95. J. R. Ballantyne, Lectures on the Sub-Divisions of Knowledge, and Their Mutual Relations. Delivered in the Benares Sanskrit College, Part 1 (Mirzapore: Orphan School Press, 1848), "Preface," n.p.
96. Ballantyne, A Discourse on Translation, 11.
97. Ibid., 15.
98. Ballantyne, "Advertisement," in his A Synopsis of Science, ix. Also, General Report on Public Instruction in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency for 1850-1851, 52.
99. W. Yates, Padārthavidyāsāra: Elements of Natural Philosophy and History; in a Series of Familiar Dialogues (Calcutta: School Book Society's Press, 1828 [2d ed. 1834]). Technical terms included lavanamaya ("consisting of salt") for "saline," and tārapinākhya ("one with the name tārapina") for "turpentine."
100. J. Mack, Principles of Chemistry (Serampore: Serampore Press: 1834).
101. Rasāyan Prakāś: Conversations on Chemistry in Hindi (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1847).
102. J. R. Ballantyne, A Synopsis of Science; from the Standpoint of the Nyaya Philosophy, Sanskrit and English, Vol. II (Mirzapore: Orphan School Press, 1852), "Preface;"
103. also, Ballantyne, A Discourse on Translation, 15-16.
104. Ballantyne, Christianity Contrasted with Hindu Philosophy, 213-15. This section does not appear in earlier versions of this discussion, either in A Synopsis of Science, or A Discourse on Translation.
105. See Colebrooke, trans., Cosha, or Dictionary of the Sanscrit Language, by Amera Sinha.
106. Ballantyne, A Synopsis of Science, Vol. II, "Preface" (1852 ed.).
107. Ibid.;
108. also Ballantyne, A Discourse on Translation, 16.
109. Ibid.;
110. also Ballantyne, A Discourse on Translation, 16-18.
111. See BL, OIOC, NWP, GP, P/215/26 (Aug.-Sept. 1853), No. 119 (18 Aug.), "Statement of a Work which It Is Proposed the Government Should Print or Subscribe For," regarding "Hindee Synopsis of Science."
112. BL, OIOC, NWP, GP, P/215/16 (Mar.-Apr. 1852), No. 69 (7 Apr.), J. R. Ballantyne to Secretary to Government NWP W. Muir, 1 Apr. 1852. Ballantyne reports on the progress made in the "Hindi Version of the Treatise on Physical Science."
113. BL, OIOC, NWP, GP, P/215/12 (18 July-30 Sept. 1851), No. 46 (13 Aug.), Secretary to Government NWPJ. Thornton to J. R. Ballantyne, 13 Aug. 1851. Also, B. D. Śastri, Bījaganita: The Elements of Algebra (Bombay: 1850);
114. and B. D. Śastri, Vyaktaganita: Elements of Arithmetic (Benares: 1875).
115. B. D. Śastri, Bhūgolavarnana: Geography of the World, Consisting Chiefly of the Geography of India (Mirzapore: Orphan Press, 1853).
116. See also R. Jasan, trans., Bhūgola-Candrikā: Geography of the World (Benares: 1859).
117. B. D. Śastri Trikonamiti, V. S. Vyasa, trans. (Benares: Medical Hall Press, 1859).
118. M. P. Miśra, trans., Vāhyaprapan̄ca-darpana (Benares: Medical Hall Press, 1859);
119. J. R. Ballantyne, ed., Laghu Kaumudi, M. P. Miśra, trans. (in Hindi) (Benares: 1856).
120. M. P. Miśra, A Trilingual Dictionary; Being a Comprehensive Lexicon in English, Urdu, and Hindi, Exhibiting the Syllabication, Pronunciation and Etymology of English Words, with Their Explanation in English, and in Urdu and Hindi in the Roman Character (Benares: E. J. Lazarus and Co., 1865);
121. R. Jasan, A Sanskrit and English Dictionary, Being an Abridgment of Professor Wilson's Dictionary, with an Appendix Explaining the Use of Affixes in Sanskrit (Benares: E. J. Lazarus and Co., 1870).
122. See also, V. Dalmia, The Nationalization of Hindu Traditions: Bhāratendu Hariśchandra and Nineteenth-Century Banaras (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997), 190-91.
123. Miśra, A Trilingual Dictionary, 4.
124. General Report on Public Instruction in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency, for 1846-1847 (Agra: Secundra Orphan Press, 1848), 33-34.
125. BL, OIOC, NWP, GP, P/215/23 (15 Mar.-26 Apr. 1853), No. 226 (24 Mar.), Secretary to Government NWP W. Muir to J. R. Ballantyne, 24 Mar. 1853.
126. BL, OIOC, NWP, GP, P/215/54 (1 Apr.-10 May 1856), No. 228 (19 Apr.), "Memo," by F.-E. Hall, 4 Dec. 1854.
127. BL, OIOC, NWP, GP, P/215/23 (15 Mar.-26 Apr. 1853), No. 205 (22 Mar.), Secretary to Government NWP W. Muir to Local Committee of Public Instruction (LCPI) Agra, Bareilly, Ajmere, and Saugor, Secretary Roorkee College, and Visitor General NWP Schools, 22 Mar. 1853.
128. BL, OIOC, NWP, GP, P/215/24 (16 Apr.-31 May 1853), No. 270 (27 May), Secretary Agra LCPI J. Middleton to W Muir, 1 Apr. 1853; and No. 272 (27 May), Secretary Delhi LCPI J. Cargill to W. Muir, 4 Apr. 1853.
129. S Rama, Śabda Prabandāvalī (Allahabad: Government Press, 1873).
130. S. Upadhyay, Hindī kī Dūsrī Kitāb: Second Hindi Reader Containing Literature, Grammar Arithmetic, Geography and Science Lessons, with English and Persian Equivalents for Its Technical Terms (Benares: Medical Hall Press, 1881).
131. Mitra, A Scheme for the Rendering of European Terms into the Vernaculars of India, esp. 19-27.
132. S. S. Das, ed., The Hindi Scientific Glossary, Containing the Terms of Astronomy, Chemistry, Geography, Mathematics, Philosophy, Physics and Political Economy, and Their Hindi Equivalents (Benares: Medical Hall Press, 1906), 151-52.
133. "Padārth bad," in Hindī Pradīp 1, 6 (Feb. 1878). In addition, one should note the exertions of Rāja Śivā Prasād, who consciously attempted to forge a Hindi vernacular without reference solely to Sanskrit as a feeder language. In this regard, however, he was motivated by a desire that Hindi be an inclusive medium for both Hindus and Muslims. See his Vidyankur, or an Adoption from Chamber's "Rudiments of Knowledge," and the first few pages of "Introduction to the Sciences," 4th ed. (Allahabad: Government Press, 1881), "Preface."
134. Dalmia, The Nationalization of Hindu Traditions, 174-75;
135. C. R. King, "Forging a New Linguistic Identity: The Hindi Movement in Banaras, 1868-1914, in, S. B. Freitag, ed., Culture and Power in Banaras: Community, Performance and Environment, 1800-1980 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989), 184-85.
136. Dalmia, The Nationalization of Hindu Traditions, 181-91.