'A baby who does not cry will not be suckled': AMODEG and the reintegration of demobilised soldiers

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 207-222

  Schafer, Jessica ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 26444605024     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057079808708573     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. M. Bratton, 'Beyond the State: Civil Society and Associational Life in Africa', World Politics, 41, 3 (1989), pp. 407-429;
2. L. Diamond, 'Introduction: Roots of Failure, Seeds of Hope', in L. Diamond, (ed), Democracy in Developing Countries: Africa, Vol. II (Boulder, 1988).
3. P. Chabal (ed), Political Domination in Africa: Reflections on the Limitations of Power (Cambridge, 1986).
4. M. Bratton, 'The Politics of Government-NGO Relations in Africa', World Development, 17, 4 (1989), pp. 569-587.
5. J. Hanlon, Peace Without Profit: How The IMF Blocks Rebuilding in Mozambique (Portsmouth and London, 1996), p. 146.
6. J. Marshall and O. Roesch, 'The "Green Zones" Agricultural Co-operatives of Nampula City: A New Phase in the Mozambican Co-operative Movement?', Journal of Southern African Studies, 19, 2 (June 1993).
7. J. Bennet, 'Mozambique: Post-war Reconstruction and the LINK NGO Forum, 1987-94', in J. Bennet (ed.), Meeting Needs: NGO Co-ordination in Practice (London, 1995), chap. 4.
8. J. Grest, 'Urban management: Local Government Reform and the Democratisation Process in Mozambique: Maputo City: 1975-1990', Journal of Southern African Studies, 21, 1 (March 1995), p. 151.
9. J. Alexander, 'The Local State in Post-War Mozambique: Political Practice and Ideas About Authority', Africa, 67, 1 (1997), pp. 1-21.
10. J. Cravinho, 'Modernizing Mozambique: Frelimo Ideology and the Frelimo State', PhD Thesis, University of Oxford, 1995.
11. See, N. Kriger, 'The Politics of Creating National Heroes: The Search for Political Legitimacy and National Identity', in N. Bhebe and T. Ranger (eds), Soldiers in Zimbabwe's Liberation War (Harare, Portsmouth and London, 1995), pp. 139-162;
12. R. Preston, 'Integrating Fighters After War: Reflections on the Namibian Experience, 1989-1993', Journal of Southern African Studies, 23, 3 (September 1997), pp. 453-472.
13. This term is used to refer loosely to the ensemble of external actors, but should not be taken to imply a cohesive group with common interests: there are many and fundamental differences within and between the various institutions which fall within this category.
14. Domingo, 11 October 1992. This article will not detail the role and activities of the Association of Veterans of the Liberation War, the Antigos Combatentes, which was set up in 1989, though the membership is potentially overlaps with that of AMODEG. See footnote 83.
15. Domingo, 1992 Ibid.
16. Referring to the armies in which they fought, not necessarily their current political allegiance. Most demobilised soldiers continue to consider themselves as from one side or the other, although some switching of allegiance has occurred, primarily of Renamo demobilised soldiers in the strongly Frelimo-identified southern region of the country (J. P. B. Coelho, personal communication, Maputo, October 1996).
17. Domingo, 11 October 1992.
18. Domingo, 1992. Ibid.
19. Domingo, 1992. Ibid.
20. Domingo, 1992. Ibid.
21. Domingo, 1992. Ibid.
22. Domingo, 1992. Ibid.
23. The exact number of AMODEG's potential constituency is not known, but there were 90,710 soldiers demobilised by ONUMOZ and an estimated further 30-60,000 soldiers demobilised by the government before the General Peace Accord, according to G. Tajú, 'Desmobilizados a reintegrar na sociedade civil', manuscript, Centro de Estudos Africanos, Maputo, 1992.
24. D. Held, 'Introduction: Central Perspectives on the Modern State', in D. Held et al., States and Societies (Oxford, 1983), pp. 1-58;
25. Chabal, Political Domination.
26. The importance of mobilisation for collective action using non-material resources has been recognised particularly within the study of 'new social movements' in the West. See S. Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics (Cambridge, 1994).
27. Personal communication, Gulamo Tajú, Eduardo Mondlane University, Maputo, 8 January 1996.
28. AMODEG provincial reports to the National Seminar, 23 December 1995.
29. Interview, Julio Nimuíre, President of AMODEG, Maputo, 12 February 1996. AMODEG has since moved to a more central location in Maputo, also a government-owned property.
30. Interviews, Eduardo Gimo, Mossurize District Administrator, Espungabera, 9 April 1996; Patrick Machanjaire, AMODEG district delegate, Espungabera, 2 July 1996.
31. Interview, Andre Chanhiço, AMODEG-Machaze district delegate, Chimoio, 20 June 1996.
32. Notícias, 23 February 1995, p. 3.
33. J. P. Borges Coelho and A. Vines, 'Pilot Study on Demobilisation and Re-integration of Ex-combatants in Mozambique' (Oxford, 1994), p. 17.
34. Interview, Jacques Burkhard, Provincial Co-ordinator of Programmes, IOM-Manica, Chimoio, 28 February 1996.
35. Notícias, 4 October 1994, p. 1.
36. Notícias, 22 October 1994, p. 1.
37. Provincial Reports to National Seminar, Quelimane, 23-25 December 1995.
38. Notícias, 28 January 1995, p. 1.
39. Notícias, 17 March 1995, p. 4.
40. Notícias, 15 March 1995.
41. Notícias, 15 March 1995.
42. Notícias, 19 April 1995, p. 1.
43. The BPD was distributing the 18-month subsidy payments funded by the international community subsequent to the demobilisation, but was instructed by the donors to keep the Metical amount steady over the 18 month period even though inflation decreased buying power (Interview, Tim Born, Programme Officer, United States Agency for International Development, Maputo, 20 February 1996; Notícias, 20 April 1995). This was a source of discontent amongst the demobilised soldiers, since they were also not permitted to take the subsidy in a lump sum payment at the beginning. (Interview, Júlio Nimuíre, Chimoio, 18 August 1996.)
44. Notícias, 19 April 1995, p. 1.
45. Notícias, 1995, p. 1. Ibid.
46. Notícias, 20 April 1995, p. 1.
47. Diário, 20 April 1995.
48. Diário, 1995. Ibid.
49. Diário, 1995. Ibid.
50. Diário, 1995. Ibid.
51. Notícias, 25 April 1995, p. 1.
52. Notícias, 22 April 1995, p. 4.
53. Since demobilisation had occurred over a period of months, the end of subsidy payments was staggered.
54. Notícias, 17 February 1996, p. 4.
55. Interview, Júlio Nimuíre, Chimoio, 18 August 1996.
56. Interview, Mario Tavolaj, IOM Provincial Fund Manager and Cheryl Simmons, Assistant IRS/PF Manager, Maputo, 19 February 1996.
57. Interviews, Fernando Mouzinho, AMODEG Provincial Secretary Manica, Chimoio, June 1996; Notícias, 18 May 1996, 9 June 1996; Júlio Nimuíre, AMODEG President, Maputo, 24 October 1996.
58. Notícias, 12 March 1996.
59. Notícias, 16 April 1996.
60. Interview, Chimoio, 18 August 1996.
61. D. Glaser, 'South Africa and the Limits of Civil Society', Journal of Southern African Studies, 23, 1 (March 1997), p. 13.
62. Statutes of the Associação Moçambicana dos Desmobilizados de Guerra, 1996.
63. The Provincial Secretary for Gaza was put in place in 1992, but he 'left the province due to the problem of subsistence', not taking up the post again until June 1994 (Gaza Provincial report to the first National Seminar of AMODEG, December 1995).
64. Interview, João Duzentos, Head of Control Committee, AMODEG-Zambézia, Quelimane, 20 December 1995.
65. Interview, Maria Helena Vaz, AMODEG-Zambézia, Quelimane, 20 December 1995.
66. Notícias, 11 June 1996.
67. Maputo provincial report to National Seminar, 23 December 1995.
68. In late 1995, Tete Province had delegations in two of the twelve districts, Inhambane in eight of ten, Gaza in five of nine, Maputo in seven of nine, Zambézia in thirteen of sixteen, and Niassa in five of fourteen, Nampula alone had full coverage of districts. Until early 1996, there were no delegations in Manica Province (AMODEG provincial reports to National Seminar, 23 December 1995).
69. Interview, Fernando Mouzinho, Provincial Secretary, AMODEG-Manica, Chimoio, 19 April 1996; Field notes, Mossurize district, April 1996.
70. Figures on the number of demobilised soldiers vary greatly, partly depending on whether they include demobilised soldiers from before the Peace Accord, as well as on collection methods. We collected our own figures and compared them with other sources, but none were entirely reliable. The figure of 4,000 includes demobilised soldiers from the period prior to ONUMOZ.
71. Interview, Mouzinho Ferias, District Delegate, AMODEG-Manica, Gondola, 21 August 1996.
72. Interview, Andre Chanhiço, District Delegate, AMODEG-Machaze, Chimoio, 20 June 1996 and 20 August 1996.
73. Glaser, 'South Africa', p. 13.
74. T. Pardoel, 'Demobilization in Mozambique: Socio-economic Profile of the Group of 92,881 Demobilized Soldiers as per the end of the Demobilization Programme on 30 November 1994', manuscript, Maputo, 1994.
75. Personal communication, João Paulo Borges Coelho, Maputo, 12 February 1996.
76. L. de Brito, 'O Comportamento Eleitoral nas Primeiras Eleições Multipartidárias em Moçambique', p. 489, in B. Mazula (ed.), Moçambique: Eleições, Democracía e Desenvolvimento (Maputo, 1995). Information was not available on the political background of the AMODEG delegates from the other four districts.
77. Notícias, 7 November 1995, p. 3; Interview, Sebastião Chapepa, founder of ACODERMO, Chimoio, 24 April 1996.
78. G. Tajú, '... Desmobilizados a reintegrar'.
79. Survey conducted by Provincial Planning Commission for the Refugee Studies Programme, March-April 1996. Figures for pre-ONUMOZ ex-combatants living in Chimoio city were not available, but there were 4,329 ONUMOZ demobilised.
80. Interview, Jacinta Jorge, Head of Women's Department, National AMODEG, Maputo, 23 November 1995.
81. Interviews, Fernando Mouzinho, Provincial Secretary, AMODEG-Manica; Isaura, deputy Head of Women's Department, AMODEG-Manica, Chimoio, 16 August 1996; Rogerio Pedro Sousa, Provincial Secretary, AMODEG Zambézia, interviewed by João Boavida, Quelimane, 4 May 1996; Maria Helena Vaz, Head of Women's Department, AMODEG-Zambézia, Quelimane, 20 December 1995.
82. Ibid., and T. Pardoel, 'Demobilization in Mozambique'.
83. T. Pardoel, Demobilization in Mozambique Ibid.
84. T. Pardoel, Demobilization in Mozambique Ibid.
85. The Refugee Studies Programme found that 82 per cent of Frelimo soldiers and 87 per cent of Renamo soldiers were forced recruits, C. Dolan and J. Schafer, 'Reintegration of ex-combatants in Manica and Zambézia Provinces' (Oxford 1997). See also W. Minter, 'The Mozambican National Resistance as Described by Ex-Participants', manuscript, Washington, 1988, p. 3.
86. Glaser, 'South Africa', p. 13.
87. Domingo, 11 December 1992. This means that AMODEG's potential membership overlaps with that of the Association of Veterans of the Liberation War (Antigos Combatentes). Interviews with representatives of both associations showed that there was little sense of competition between the two organisations, and much informal co-operation. AMODEG has consistently had a higher profile than the Antigos Combatentes, the latter's voice mainly being heard around the time of Independence day and 25 September, the anniversary of the initiation of the armed struggle against Portuguese colonialism.
88. Statutes of the Associacão Moçambicana dos Desmobilizados de Guerra (AMODEG), Capitulo II, Artigos Terceiro e Quarto.
89. Notícias, 23 February 1995.
90. Provincial reports to the national seminar, 23 December 1995.
91. Interview, Frelimo demobilised soldier (name withheld for confidentiality) and Patrick Machanjaire, District Delegate, AMODEG-Mossurize, Mapunguana locality, 27 July 1996.
92. Interview, Júlio Nimuíre, Chimoio, 18 August 1996.
93. Interview, demobilised soldier (name withheld for confidentiality), Bairro 7 de Setembro, Chimoio, 21 June 1996.
94. Interview, Julio Nimuíre, Chimoio, 18 August 1996.
95. Transcription of radio programme, Rádio Moçambique, Chimoio, no date, 1996.
96. It must be noted, however, that the interpretation of information presented by AMODEG during meetings as 'promises' by demobilised soldiers is itself not proof that promises were made. As both researchers and NGOs report, even when the most careful attempt is made to ensure that no promises are made and information is presented neutrally and clearly to demobilised soldiers, it is often interpreted as promises.
97. Dolan and Schafer, 'The Re-integration of Ex-Combatants', Chapter 6.
98. Dolan and Schafer, The Re-integration of Ex-Combatants Ibid., chap. 5.
99. Dolan and Schafer, The Re-integration of Ex-Combatants Ibid. and chap. 4.
100. Emílio Morais, Conference on the Reintegration of Demobilised Soldiers in Mozambique, Maputo, 24-25 October 1996.
101. Interview, Renamo demobilised soldier, Chimoio, 22 August 1996.
102. Interview, Emélia, Head of Women's Department, AMODEG-Manica, Chimoio, 22 August 1996.
103. Ibid.
104. For example, the ONUMOZ database deliberately did not register whether the demobilised soldier was from Frelimo or Renamo. The programmes for assistance to demobilised soldiers chose to target areas with the highest concentrations of demobilised, which were often urban areas. Since Frelimo demobilised soldiers more commonly settled in urban areas and Renamo demobilised in rural areas, this policy resulted in Renamo soldiers feeling neglected. Given that many analysts of the war in Mozambique identify rural marginalisation as one of the contributing factors to the war itself, this is a potentially dangerous approach.
105. Notícias, 20 September 1996, p. 4.
106. Personal Communication, Sister Fernanda, Espungabera, 17 September 1996.
107. Interviews, Bairro Secretaries, Bairro 25 de Junho, Chimoio, May 1996.
108. Interview, Albino Faife, Renamo Delegate for Manica province, Chimoio, 21 June 1996.
109. Interview, Sergio António, AMODEG-Machipanda, Gondola, 21 August 1996.