Organized resistance and black educators' quest for school equality, 1878-1938

Teachers College Record

Volumn 107, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 355-388

  Walker, Vanessa Siddle ^a  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 26444598489     PISSN: 01614681     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9620.2005.00480.x     Document Type: Article

References (198)

1. Numerous historical accounts depict Black teachers for their concern about employment loss and/or render them invisible in the struggle equality. See David Cecelski, Along Freedom Road: Hyde County, North Carolina and the Fate of Black Schools in the South (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1994);
2. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice (New York: Vintage Books, 1977);
3. Liva Baker, The Second Battle of New Orleans (New York: HarperCollins, 1996);
4. Matthew D. Lassiter and Andrew B. Lewis, ed., The Moderates' Dilemma: Massive, Resistance to School Desegregation, in Virginia (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1998);
5. Robert A. Pratt, The Color of Their Skin: Education and Race in Richmond, Virginia, 1954-89 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992);
6. David R. Goldfield, Black, White, and SOUTHERN: Race Relations and Southern Culture (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990), 12-16;
7. Charles Payne, "Debating the Civil Rights Movement; The View from the Trenches," in Steven F. Lawson and Charles Payne, Debating the Civil Rights Movement, 7945-1968 (Lanham: Rowman and Little-field, 1998), 124.
8. Kluger, Simple Justice, 339.
9. Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: The Free Press, 1984);
10. Karen Ferguson, Black Politics in New Deal Atlanta (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002).
11. Donald Grant, The Way It Was in the South: The Black Experience in Georgia (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1993);
12. Stephen N. Tuck, Beyond Atlanta: The Struggle for Racial Equality in Georgia, 1940-1980 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001);
13. Kenneth Coleman, ed., A History of Georgia (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1977);
14. Oscar H. Joiner, A History of Public Education in Georgia, 1734-1976 (Columbia, SC: R. L. Bryan Company, 1979).
15. For more general civil rights accounts that neglect teachers, see also Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954-63 (New York: Touchstone, 1988);
16. Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: The Free Press, 1984);
17. Philip A. Klinkneer with Rogers M. Smith, The Unsteady March: The Rise and, Decline of Racial Equality in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999)
18. and Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle, for Black Equality, 1954-1992 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1981);
19. Robert Margo, Race, and Schooling in the South. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 53, 63.
20. The National Educational Association and the Black Teacher, 55.
21. John J. Donohue, III, J. J. Heckman, and P.E. Todd, "The Schooling of Southern Blacks: The Roles of Legal Activism and Private Philanthropy, 1910-1950," The Quarterly Journal of Economics (February 2002).
22. See Adam Fairclough, Teaching Equality: Black Schools in the Age of Jim Crow (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001),
23. and Mark Tushnet, The NAACP's Legal Strateagy Against Segregated Education, 1925-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987).
24. The first set of studies on Black segregated schools included Alvis V. Adair, Desegregation: The Illusion of Black Progress (Lanham, Maryland: University of America, 1984);
25. M. G. Hundley, The Dunbar Story (1870-1955) (New York: Vantage Press, 1965);
26. Russell Irvine and Jackie Irvine, "The Impact of the Desegregation Process on the Education of Black Students: Key Variables," Journal of Negro Education 52 (1983), 410-422;
27. Faustine Jones, A Traditional Model of Educational Excellence: Dunbar High School of Little Rock, Arkansas (Washington: Howard University Press, 1981);
28. F. Rodgers, The Black High School and Its Community (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1967);
29. Thomas Sowell, "Black Excellence: The Case of Dunbar High School," Public Interest, 35 (1974), 1-21;
30. Thomas Sowell, "Patterns of Black Excellence," Public Interrest, 43 (1976), 26-58.
31. More recent scholarship emerged in the 1990s. Generally, it has been more widely disseminated and discussed than the earlier studies. See Tamara Beauboeuf-Lafontant, "A Movement Against and Beyond Boundaries: 'Politically Relevant Teaching' Among African American Teachers," Teachers College Record, 100 (1999), 702-723;
32. Cecelski, Along Freedom Road;
33. Michele Foster, "Constancy, Connectedness, and Constraints in the Lives of African American Teachers," NWSA Journal, 3 (1990), 233-61;
34. Michele Foster, "The Politics of Race: Through the Eyes of African American Teachers, "Journal of Education, 172 (1990), 123-41;
35. Michele Foster, Black Teachers on. Teaching (New York: The New Press);
36. Rhonda Jeffries, "The Trickster Figure in African American Teaching: Pre- and Post-Desegregation," The Urban Review, 26 (1994), 289-304;
37. Alicia McCullough-Garrett, "Reclaiming the African American Vision for Teaching: Toward and Educational Conversation," Journal of Negro Education, 62 (1993), 433-440;
38. Vivian Morris and Curtis Morris, Creating Caring and NuriuringEducational Environments for African American Children (Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey, 2000);
39. George Noblit and Van Dempsey, The Social Construction of Virtue: The Moral Life of Schools (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996);
40. Vanessa Siddle Walker, Their Highest Potential: An African American School Community in the Segregated South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996);
41. Vanessa Siddle Walker, "Caswell County Training School, 1933-1969: Relationships Between Community and School," Harvard Educational Review, 63 (1993), 161-182;
42. Vanessa Siddle Walker, "Valued Segregated Schools for African American Children in the South, 1935-1969: A Review of Common Themes and Characteristics," Review of Educational Research, 70 (Fall 2000), 253-285;
43. Vanessa Siddle Walker, "African American Teachers in Segregated Schools in the South, 1940-1969," American Educational Research Journal, 38 (2001).
44. These scholarly descriptions are accompanied by a number of locally published histories that span both time periods. See Lenwood Davis, A History of Queen Street High School: 1928-1968 (Kingston, NY: Tri State Services, 1996);
45. W. C. Edwards, Preston Royster, and Lazurus Bates, The Education of Black Citizens in Halifax County: 1866-1969 (Springfield, VA: Banister Press, 1979);
46. T. Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 1882-1982 (Louisville: Central High School Alumni Association, 1996).
47. Linda Perkins, "The History of Blacks in Teaching," in Donald Warren, American Teachers: Histories of a Profession at Work (New York: Macmillan, 1989), 351-357.
48. Thelma Perry, History of the American Teachers Association (Washington, DC: NEA, 1975);
49. Michael John Schultz, Jr., The National Education Association and the Black Teacher
50. (Michael Fultz, "African-American teachers in the South, 1890-1940: Growth, Feminisation, and Salary Discrimination," Teachers College Record 96 (Spring 1995) 40-64;
51. Thomas O'Brien, The Politics of Race and Schooling: Public Education in Georgia, 1900-1961 (Lanham: Lexington Books,1999).
52. The Bulletin, Jan-March, 1950, 26 (1), 14. Horace Tate Private Collection.
53. Rupert Picott, History of the, Virginia Teachers Association. (Washington, DC: NEA, 1975);
54. Thomas Patterson, History of the Arkansas Teachers Association (Washington, DC: NEA, 1981);
55. Ancella Bickley, History of the West Virginia State Teachers' Association (Washington, DC: NEA, 1975);
56. Gilbert Porter and Leedell Neyland, History of the Florida State Teachers Association (Washington, DC: NEA, 1977);
57. John Potts, Sr., A History of the Palmetto Education Association (Washington, DC: NEA, 1978);
58. Percy Murray, History of the North Carolina Teachers Association (Washington, DC: NEA n.d.).
59. Sterling Stuckey, Slave Culture: Nationalist theory and the foundations of Black America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
60. Rising in the Sun, 23.
61. For descriptions of Wright, see Leon F. Litwack, Trouble in Mind (New York: Vintage Books, 1999), 75-76;
62. James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 29-30.
63. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South;
64. Jacqueline Jones, Soldiers of Light and Love: Northern Teachers and, Georgia Blacks, 1865-1873 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980).
65. Anderson, The Education of Blacks: 11, records the founding as 1865;
66. Jones, Soldiers of Light and Love, 54: records the founding as 1866.
67. Numan V. Bartley, The Creation of Modern Georgia (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1983), 51.
68. For early educational activities in Georgia, see Jones, Soldiers of Light and Love, 541-563.
69. Bartley, The Creation of Modern Georgia, 51-55;
70. Jones, Soldiers of Light and love, 72.
71. Oscar H. Joiner et al., History of Public Education in Georgia (Columbia, SC: R. L.Bryan Company, 1979) do not mention the Black association. Joiner et al. chronicles instead 25 white educators from schools and colleges who met in Atlanta and formed the Georgia Teachers Association four months before the convention. Reportedly, they consulted with the George Peabody Fund in 1867 and received money to study needs and to develop a system of public schools, 70.
72. Richard R. Wright, A Brief Historical Sketch of Negro Education in Georgia (Savannah, GA: Robinson Printing House, 1894), 18.
73. The earlier leaders, described as ministers, also were likely educators. Thus, this shift may be one of name only rather than actuality. See Wright, A Brief Historical Sketch, 7.
74. See Jones, Soldiers of Light and Love, 195-201;
75. Bartley, The Creation of Modern Georgia, 69;
76. Grant, The Way It Was in the South, 126-128.
77. See Joiner et al., History of Public Education in Georgia, 89;
78. Bartley, The Creation of Modern Georgia, 80.
79. Grant, The Way it was in the South, 130.
80. Wright, A Brief Historical Sketch, 47.
81. Rising in the Sun, 24.
82. Wright, A Brief Historical Sketch, 47.
83. Joiner et al., History of Public Education in Georgia, 87-88;
84. Bartley, The Creation of Modern Georgia, 61.
85. Wright, A Brief Historical Sketch, 47.
86. Hines Lafayette Hill, Negro Education in Rural Georgia (A thesis submitted to Emory University, August 1939), 12.
87. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, provides the most comprehensive description of the variety of ways Whites educated Blacks for their roles in the South.
88. Grant, The Way It Was in the South, 127.
89. Rising in the Sun, 23.
90. Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856-1901 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 154.
91. For a discussion of the populist movement in Georgia, see Bartley, The Creation of Modern Georgia, 91-94.
92. For commentary on inequality, see Wright, A Brief Historical Sketch, 52.
93. Grant, The It Was in the South, 127-128.
94. Grant, The It Was in the South Ibid, 232.
95. Wright, A Brief Historical Sketch, 33, 52.
96. Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics and Culture in the 20th Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
97. For comprehensive accounts of the rise of Southern racism, see C. Vann Woodard, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974);
98. Kluger, Simple Justice.
99. For information specific to Georgia, see Bartley, The Creation of Modern Georgia;
100. Grant, The Way It Was in the South, 209.
101. In 1892, Atlanta Blacks boycotted streetcars, which resulted in non-enforcement of the segregation requirement. See Grant, The Way It Was in the South, 217;
102. Coleman, A History of Georgia, 277.
103. In other activism, in 1891 officers of the Colored Farmer's Alliance addressed the General Assembly and urged that Jim Crow laws not be passed and the laws were not passed. See Coleman, A History of Georgia, 277.
104. Grant, The Way It Was in the South, 216.
105. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 188, 192-193.
106. Grant, The Way It Was in the South, 232.
107. Rising in the Sun, 16. Grant reports that before disenfranchisement, Black teachers averaged 58% of the White teacher scale; three years after disfranchisement, Black teachers received only 38% of the scale. The average salary of Black teachers declined $5 a year, whereas white teachers' salaries increased by more than $100.
108. Grant, The Way It Was in the South, 235.
109. Coleman, A History of Georgia, 239.
110. Bartley, The Creation of Modern Georgia, 85.
111. Rising in the Sun, 25.
112. "Special Notice to Colored Teachers," Savannah Tribune 28 (August 16, 1913) 4.
113. "Special Notice to Colored Teachers," Savannah Tribune 28 Ibid. (1913) 4
114. Grant, The Way It Was in the South, 228.
115. Reported in Rising in the Sun, 25.
116. W. E. Burgharadt Du Bois, "The Negro Common School," in The Atlanta University Publications (New York: Arno Press and The New York Times, 1969), 117.
117. Rising in the Sun, 24-25.
118. "National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools to Meet," Savannah Tribune 32 (July, 1917), 1.
119. Grant, The Way it was in the South 244.
120. Perry, History of the American Teachera Association, 47-48;
121. Donald H. Parkerson and Jo Ann Parkerson, Transitions in American Education: A Social History of Teaching (New York: Routledge Farmer, 2001), 87.
122. For leadership of Wright, Laner, and Hope in NATCS, see Perry, History of American Teachers Association, 103, 104, 107.
123. Wright was unable to attend the 1909 meeting; however, Hope attended. See Ridgely Torrence, The Story of John Hope (New York: Macmillan Company, 1948), 161.
124. "Special Notice to Colored Teachers," Savannah Tribune 28 (August 16, 1913) 4.
125. For references to newspaper accounts of Black educational activity in the 1880s, see Rising in the Sun, 22-24.
126. Except for the 1913 reference, reported activity in the Savannah Tribune does not resume until 1917.
127. For example, see "Georgia Association for Negro Education Holds Successful Meeting in Atlanta," Savannah Tribune 36 (May 14, 1921), 1;
128. "Educational Association Planning Big Meeting," Savannah Tribune (April 13, 1918), 2;
129. "Many Attend Educational Mass Meeting," Savannah Tribune 31 (May 10, 1919). Others are cited in references below.
130. Kluger, Simple Justice, 85-86.
131. Grant, The Way It Was in the South, 293;
132. Kluger, Simple Justice, 100.
133. Coleman, A History of Georgia, 261.
134. "The Negro 'Exodus' in Texas," Savannah Times 32 (July 17, 1979), 1.
135. Grant, The Way It Was in the South, 293-294.
136. William G. Jordan, Black Newspapers & America's War for Democracy, 1914-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 145.
137. Kluger, Simple Justice, 100-104.
138. Joiner et al., History of Public Education in Georgia, 200.
139. Jones, Soldiers of Light and Mercy, 72.
140. 'Jesse O.Thomas Interview" (1961). Tate Papers.
141. "Big Educational Meeting Next Month," Savannah Tribune 34 (April 19, 1919), 1.
142. Hunt may have been mirroring the behavior of Booker T. Washington. For a description of Washington's actions politically behind the scenes and Tuskegee students studying national philosophy, ancient history, and civil government in 1897, see Harlan, Booker T. Washington;
143. David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. DuBois: Biography of a Race (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1993), 197-198.
144. On Hunt's liberal arts curriculum in 1915, see also Lewis, 545. On the evolution of Hunt, James Anderson argues that Hunt may have learned from his predecessor what happens to Blacks who fail to play the game of vocational education correctly. This understanding, coupled with his familial associations with Tuskegee faculty, allow him to publicly pretend to eschew his Atlanta University training, while quietly finding ways to generate resistance. James Anderson, personal communication.
145. "Great Meeting in the Interest of Education," Savannah Tribute (April 28, 1917), 1.
146. Grant, The Way It Was in Georgia, 294.
147. "National Teachers at Harper's Ferry," Savannah Tribune (July 27, 1918), 1.
148. Great Meeting in the Interest of Education," Savannah Tribule, (April 28, 1917), 1.
149. Rising in the Sun, 26.
150. Interestingly, these points are the same points argued by Waycross leaders during that same year. Though no explicit link has been identified, the leaders of that group quite likely are part of the new educational group. For a description of the Waycross activity, see Grant, The Waylt Was in the South, 294.
151. "Need Felt for Educational Awakening," Savannah Tribune (March 2, 1918), 1.
152. Joiner et al., History of Public Education in Georgia, 212.
153. Thomas O'Brien, The Politics of Race, and Schooling, 15.
154. "Many Attend Educational Mass Meeting," Savannah Tribune (May 10, 1919);
155. "Educational Ass'n to Meet in Macon," Savannah Tribune (April 24, 1920), 1.
156. Walter W. White to Roy Nash, New York, 16 December 1916; Walter White to Roy Nash, New York, 3 February 1917; Walter W. White to Roy Nash, New York, 3 February 1917; Walter W. White to James W. Johnson, Florida, 22 February 1917. NAACP Branch Files, Atlanta, Georgia, 1913-1917. NAACP Records, Library of Congress.
157. Edgar Tappin, "Walter White and the Atlanta NAACP's Fight for Equal Schools, 1916-1917, History of Education Quarterly 7 (Spring 1967), 3-17. For Atlanta branch activity, see also Walter White to James W. Johnson, New York, 27 March 1917; Walter White to Roy Nash, New York, 19 March 1917; Walter White to Roy Nash, New York, 3 February 1917; Walter W. White to Roy Nash, New York, 3 March 1917; Walter W. White to James W. Johnson, New York, 27 September 1917. For lessened activity in the Branch, see Acting Secretary to Harry H. Pace, Atlanta, 12 December 1917; Acting Secretary to Walter White, Atlanta, 12 December 1917; Walter W. White to James W. Johnson, New York, 5 December 1917; Director of Branches to Austin T. Walden 27 January 1925; Director of Branches to E. Franklin Frazier, Atlanta, 21 January 1925; Director of Branches to E. Franklin Frazier, Atlanta, 24 February 1925; 2-27-27; 6-19-19. For charter requests and demise of other Georgia branches, as evidenced by lack of communication, see examples of correspondence in Branch Files for Albany, GA, 1919-1933; Americus, GA, 1919, 122-1924; Athens, GA, 1917-1918; Brunswick, GA, 1918-1938; Columbus, GA; Cordele, GA; For branch activity in the 1930s, see branch files for Augusta, GA, Jan.-Nov. 1933; Bainbridge, GA; Alblany, GA 1934; Baxley, GA, Apr-Nov. 1936; Cartersville, GA; Cedartown, GA; Collins, GA; Cuthbert, GA, 1934-1939. Savannah activity can be documented in the Savannah Branch Files. NAACP Records, Library of Congress.
158. "Special Notice to Colored Teachers," Savannah Tribune 18 (August 16, 1913), 4;
159. Perry, History of American Teachers Association, 105;
160. Lewis, W, E. B. DuBois, 550; Walter White to James W. Johnson, New York, 22 February 1917.
161. Tour guides at the King center currently describe the King home as the place where educators met with A. D. Williams, NAACP president, to plan advocacy. Public Parks, Atlanta, GA.
162. Grant, The Way It Was in the South, 311. As noted in footnote 83, Georgia branches formed circa 1917-19. The branch files reveal little activity in the 1920s. For branch activity in the 1930s, see, for example, branch files for Augusta, GA, Jan.-Nov. 1933; Bainbridge, GA; Albany, GA, 1934; Baxley, GA, Apr.-Nov. 1936; Cartersville, GA; Cedartown, GA; Collins, GA; Cuthbert, GA, 1934-1939.
163. The association continued to evolve until 1926. Rising in the Sun, 41, notes that several other previous associations, such as the Georgia Business and Professional League and the Organization of Private Colleges and Schools, also became part of GTEA. During the 1920s, this association is known as the Georgia State Teachers and Educational Association. For clarity, I refer to the organization throughout as the Georgia Teachers and Education Association (GTEA).
164. Rising in the Sun, 29.
165. Rising in the Sun Ibid 50-51.
166. "Annual Address of President B. F. Hubert," The Herald 4 (June 1938), 4-5.
167. The Herald 2, (April 1930), 15. Horace Tate Collection, Atlanta, GA.
168. "A New Deal for the Negro School Child," 1-2. Horace Tate Collection, Atlanta, GA. In these and other excerpts, I omit other concerns of the Association that relate to curricular matters, increasing teacher qualifications, and so forth. Although the teachers were equally interested in these areas, this topic is not the focus of the present paper.
169. Rising in the Sun, 51.
170. GTEA Executive Meeting minutes, June 28, 1929. Horace Tate Collection, Atlanta, GA. This statement is also recorded in Rising in the Sun, 51.
171. J. C. Dixon, "Everyone to the Annual Convention in Macon," The Herald 2 (April 1932), 7.
172. J. C. Dixon to Jeanes teachers, Georgia, 6 December 1933. Vincent H. Harris File, Georgia State Archives.
173. Rising in the Sun, 54;
174. Vincent Harris, "Editorial," The Herald 2 (April 1932), 7.
175. Descriptions of teacher response are most evident in the Vincent Harris file, Georgia State Archives. See Vincent Harris to Dorothy Millsap, Atlanta, 31 January 1931; H. A. Hunt to Vincent H. Harris, Atlanta, 25 January 1932; Vincent Harris to Dorothy Millsap, Atlanta, 28 March 1932; Vincent Harris to Mayme R. Brown, Cuthbert, GA, 16 February 1933; Mayme R. Brown to J. C. Dixon, Atlanta, 31 January 1933. For their response during the Depression, see Vincent Harris to W. P. Stephens, Calhoun, GA, 4 October 1931; Walter Stephens to J. C. Dixon, Atlanta, 18 October 1932, 10-18-32; J. C. Dixon to Mason Williams, Morven, GA, 20 February 1933; Dixon to J. Mason Williams, Morven, GA, 7 March 1933.
176. Rising in the Sun, 56.
177. Rising in the Sun, 56.
178. Rising in the Sun Ibid. 56
179. "Minutes of annual Meeting," April 17, 1930, 20. Horace Tate Collection, Atlanta, GA.
180. W. E. B. Du Bois served on the advisory board for GTEA for 1936 and 1937 and lectured at one of the GTEA meetings in 1937. At least two copies of the Herald carry articles/ sppeeches by him during his affiliation with GTEA. See "Dr. W. E. B. DuBois speaks at Georgia State College," The Herald 5 (February 1939), 10-11
181. and "Curriculum Revision," The Herald 3 (March 1937), 13.
182. Executive Meeting Minutes, June 28, 1929. Horace Tate Collection, Atlanta, GA.
183. In public materials, the advocacy is often concealed under such categories as "presidential recommendations," or, in later years, "teacher improvement." The contrast between die minutes of the executive committee and the annual meeting suggest a concealment or minimization of the advocacy in public discourse. Minutes of Annual Meeting, Savannah, GA, April 17, 1929. Horace Tate Collection, Atlanta, GA.
184. Vincent Harris, "Editorial," The Herald 2 (April 1932), 7;
185. H. A. Hunt, Letter to Fellow Teachers, The Herald 2 (April 1932), 14;
186. Agnes Jones, "A New Deal for the Negro School Child," 4. Horace Tate; Collection, Atlanta, GA.
187. Rising in the Sun, 29.
188. Vincent Harris to J. C. Dixon, Atlanta, 21 March 1932; J. C. Dixon to Vincent Harris, Atlanta, 11 April 1932; Vincent Harris to Dixon, Atlanta, 4 October 1932.
189. For Dixon's evolution, see J. C. Dixon to Vincent Harris, Atlanta, 12 January 1931; Vincent Harris to J. C. Dixon, Atlanta, 9 March 1931; Vincent Harris to J. C. Dixon, Atlanta, 8 April 1931; J. C. Dixon to Vincent Harris, Atlanta, 24 July 1931; Vincent Harris to J. C. Dixon, Atlanta, 6 January 1932; Vincent Harris to J. c. Dixon, Atlanta 8 December 1933; J. C. Dixon to Vincent Harris, Atlanta, 6 April 1933; Vincent Harris to J. C. Dixon, Atlanta, 1 March 1933. The evolution of Dixon may shed meaning on the statement of his contemporary, captured in James Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, Anderson records that Newbold notes, "If only these walls could talk." Newbold may, in fact, be suggesting a relationship occurring within those walls that was not publicly unveiled.
190. "Vincent H. Harris, Editorial," The Herald 2 (April 1932), 7. The relationship between Dixon and vocational education is as yet unclear. GTEA members themselves advocated for vocational education, and had since the Smith-Hughes Act. They seemed to see no contradiction between this advocacy and classical education, indeed allowing both of them to exist side by side in local school settings.
191. "The Julius Rosenwald Fund," The Herald 3 (March 1937), 4. Horace Tate Collection, Atlanta, GA;
192. Rising in the Sun, 51.
193. See "Negro School Conditions," Georgia, Education, Journal, 27 (January 1935), 33, for an example of one of the few reports on Negro education.
194. See, for example, "Editorial," Georgia Education Journal 28 (February 1936), 20.
195. "Editorial, " Georgia Education Journal 28 (November 1935), 20.
196. "Editorial," Georgia, Education Journal 28 (January 1936), 20.
197. For various reports on teacher certification, building program enrollment gains, see The Herald 3 (March 1937), 12. However, it must be noted that it is difficult to disaggregate this activity from the GEA influence, since GEA also advocated for general issues such as school term.
198. Tushnet, The NAACP's Legal Strategy, 12.