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Volumn 3, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 989-1006

The crime of genocide in the ICTR jurisprudence

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EID: 26444522279     PISSN: 14781387     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jicj/mqi060     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (40)

References (87)
  • 1
    • 85069409901 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September 1998.
    • (1998)
  • 2
    • 85069398779 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • UN Information Centre (Pretoria), Statement by U.N Secretary-General Kofi Annan on the Occasion of the Announcement of the First Judgement in a Case of Genocide by the International Criminal Tribunal For Rwanda. UN doc. PR/10/98/UNIC
    • UN Information Centre (Pretoria), Statement by U.N Secretary-General Kofi Annan on the Occasion of the Announcement of the First Judgement in a Case of Genocide by the International Criminal Tribunal For Rwanda. UN doc. PR/10/98/UNIC, 1998.
    • (1998)
  • 3
    • 85069402228 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Kambanda (ICTR 97-23-S), Trial Chamber I, 4 September §
    • Judgment, Kambanda (ICTR 97-23-S), Trial Chamber I, 4 September 1998, §16.
    • (1998) , pp. 16
  • 4
    • 85069404501 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Art. 12 (2) ICTRSt
    • See Art. 12 (2) ICTRSt.
  • 5
    • 84926099845 scopus 로고
    • See, e.g. Hersch Lauterpacht's remark that 'to a considerable extent, the [Genocide] Convention amounts to a registration of protest against past misdeeds of individual savagery rather than to an effective instrument of their prevention or repression' H. Lauterpacht (ed.), (8th edn, London: Longmans,)
    • See, e.g. Hersch Lauterpacht's remark that 'to a considerable extent, the [Genocide] Convention amounts to a registration of protest against past misdeeds of individual savagery rather than to an effective instrument of their prevention or repression' in L. Oppenheim, International Law: A Treatise, H. Lauterpacht (ed.), Vol. I (8th edn, London: Longmans, 1955).
    • (1955) International Law: A Treatise , vol.1
    • Oppenheim, L.1
  • 6
    • 0039512608 scopus 로고
    • 'Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide'
    • 'Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide', 78 UNTS 277 (1951).
    • (1951) UNTS , vol.78 , pp. 277
  • 7
    • 85069403453 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Judgement, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September 1998. §where the Chamber notes 'that Rwanda acceded, by legislative decree, to the Convention on Genocide on 12 February 1975 For a record of accession to the Convention, see (visited 13 April)
    • See Akayesu, supra note 1, §496, where the Chamber notes 'that Rwanda acceded, by legislative decree, to the Convention on Genocide on 12 February 1975'. For a record of accession to the Convention, see http://www.ohchr.org/english/countries/ratification/1.htm (visited 13 April 2005).
    • (2005) , pp. 496
  • 8
    • 85069409973 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Akayesu, supra note 1, §495;
    • (1998) , pp. 495
  • 9
    • 85069401902 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also the Judgment in Musema (ICTR 96-13-A), Trial Chamber I, 27 January §
    • see also the Judgment in Musema (ICTR 96-13-A), Trial Chamber I, 27 January 2000, §151
    • (2000) , pp. 151
  • 10
    • 85069412921 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and in Rutaganda (ICTR 96-3), Trial Chamber I, 6 December §
    • and in Rutaganda (ICTR 96-3), Trial Chamber I, 6 December 1999, §46.
    • (1999) , pp. 46
  • 11
    • 0042435830 scopus 로고
    • 'Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide'
    • Advisory Opinion, It should be noted that the Akayesu (supra note 1), Musema and Rutaganda (supra note 8) decisions also refer to the ICTY's Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to Paragraph 2 of Security Council Resolution 808. UN doc. S/25704, 1993, §45, which states: 'The Convention is today considered part of international customary law as evidenced by the International Court of Justice in its Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1951'. Thus, the ICTY Secretary-General's Report also relies on the ICJ Advisory Opinion in asserting the customary law character of the prohibition against genocide
    • 'Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide', Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1951. It should be noted that the Akayesu (supra note 1), Musema and Rutaganda (supra note 8) decisions also refer to the ICTY's Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to Paragraph 2 of Security Council Resolution 808. UN doc. S/25704, 1993, §45, which states: 'The Convention is today considered part of international customary law as evidenced by the International Court of Justice in its Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1951'. Thus, the ICTY Secretary-General's Report also relies on the ICJ Advisory Opinion in asserting the customary law character of the prohibition against genocide.
    • (1951) ICJ Reports
  • 12
    • 1842592166 scopus 로고
    • at
    • ICJ Reports 1951, at 23.
    • (1951) ICJ Reports , pp. 23
  • 13
    • 9744248424 scopus 로고
    • 'Crimes against Humanity'
    • G. Ginsburgs and V.N. Kudriavtsev (eds), (Dordrecht: Nijhoff), at
    • R.S. Clark, 'Crimes against Humanity', in G. Ginsburgs and V.N. Kudriavtsev (eds), The Nuremberg Trial and International Law (Dordrecht: Nijhoff, 1990), at 194.
    • (1990) The Nuremberg Trial and International Law , pp. 194
    • Clark, R.S.1
  • 14
    • 85069413477 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 999 UNTS 171
    • 999 UNTS 171.
  • 17
    • 85069407000 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Kayishema (ICTR-95-1-T), Trial Chamber II, 21 May §
    • Judgment, Kayishema (ICTR-95-1-T), Trial Chamber II, 21 May 1999, §91.
    • (1999) , pp. 91
  • 18
    • 85069411572 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Art. 30(2)(b) ICCSt
    • See Art. 30(2)(b) ICCSt.
  • 19
    • 85069403633 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Musema §Judgment in (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 27 January
    • Musema, supra note 8, §164;
    • (2000) , pp. 164
  • 20
    • 85069404599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Akayesu §Judgment, (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • see also Akayesu, supra note 1, §518.
    • (1998) , pp. 518
  • 21
    • 85069410315 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Musema (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 27 January September
    • Musema, supra note 8, §166.
    • (2000) , pp. 166
  • 22
    • 85069402485 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgement, Rutaganda (ICTR-96-3 A), Appeals Chamber, 26 May §
    • Judgement, Rutaganda (ICTR-96-3 A), Appeals Chamber, 26 May 2003, §524.
    • (2003) , pp. 524
  • 23
    • 85069415773 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Akayesu, supra note 1, §520.
    • (1998) , pp. 520
  • 24
    • 85069409047 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., § 517-520.
    • (1998) , pp. 517-520
  • 25
    • 85069412223 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §See, Judgment, Kayishema (ICTR-95-1-T), Trial Chamber II, 21 May §
    • See Kayishema, supra note 15, §92.
    • (1999) , pp. 92
  • 26
    • 85069400150 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (CTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Akayesu, supra note 1, §479.
    • (1998) , pp. 479
  • 27
    • 85069403077 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., §485.
    • (1998) , pp. 485
  • 28
    • 85069403221 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., §540.
    • (1998) , pp. 540
  • 29
    • 85069400707 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g. Judgment, Krstić (IT-98-33-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 April §
    • See, e.g. Judgment, Krstić (IT-98-33-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 April 2004, §141.
    • (2004) , pp. 141
  • 30
    • 85069400958 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • It may be noted that the crime of genocide under Art. 6 ICCSt. does not include the punishable acts under Art. III of the Convention. The acts are subsumed by Art. 25 - a general provision on individual criminal responsibility - although Art. 25(3)(e) retains direct and public incitement to genocide' as a distinct category.
  • 31
    • 85069399885 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Krstić (IT-98-33-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 April §
    • Krstić, supra note 28, §139.
    • (2004) , pp. 139
  • 32
    • 85069410144 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Krstić (IT-98-33-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 April §
    • Ibid., §139.
    • (2004) , pp. 139
  • 33
    • 85069417534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Krstić (IT-98-33-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 April §
    • Ibid., §140.
    • (2004) , pp. 140
  • 34
    • 85069416546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Krstić (IT-98-33-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 April §
    • Ibid., §143.
    • (2004) , pp. 143
  • 35
    • 85069400046 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g. Musema at §see also the Judgement in (ICTR 96-13-A), Trial Chamber I, 27 January stating that 'the requisite intent for the crime of conspiracy to commit genocide is, ipso facto, the intent required for the crime of genocide, that is the dolus specialis of genocide'
    • See, e.g. Musema, supra note 8, at §192, stating that 'the requisite intent for the crime of conspiracy to commit genocide is, ipso facto, the intent required for the crime of genocide, that is the dolus specialis of genocide'.
    • (2000) , pp. 192
  • 36
    • 85069413883 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., §see also the Judgement in Musema (ICTR 96-13-A), Trial Chamber I, 27 January stating that 'the crime of conspiracy to commit genocide is punishable even if it fails to produce a result, that is to say, even if the substantive offence, in this case genocide, has not actually been perpetrated'
    • Ibid., §194, stating that 'the crime of conspiracy to commit genocide is punishable even if it fails to produce a result, that is to say, even if the substantive offence, in this case genocide, has not actually been perpetrated'.
    • (2000) , pp. 194
  • 37
    • 85069408666 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also Akayesu §Judgment, (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September stating that 'the person who is inciting to commit genocide must have himself the specific intent to commit genocide'
    • See also Akayesu, supra note 1, §560, stating that 'the person who is inciting to commit genocide must have himself the specific intent to commit genocide'.
    • (1998) , pp. 560
  • 38
    • 85069417590 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g. Akayesu §Judgment, (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September stating that 'genocide clearly falls within the category of crimes so serious that direct and public incitement to commit such a crime must be punished as such, even where such incitement failed to produce the result expected by the perpetrator'
    • See, e.g. Akayesu, supra note 1, §562, stating that 'genocide clearly falls within the category of crimes so serious that direct and public incitement to commit such a crime must be punished as such, even where such incitement failed to produce the result expected by the perpetrator'.
    • (1998) , pp. 562
  • 39
    • 85069399102 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g. Rutaganda §(ICTR 96-3), Trial Chamber I, 6 December stating that 'attempt is by definition an inchoate crime, inherent in the criminal conduct per se irrespective of its result'
    • See, e.g. Rutaganda, supra note 8, §34, stating that 'attempt is by definition an inchoate crime, inherent in the criminal conduct per se irrespective of its result'.
    • (1999) , pp. 34
  • 40
    • 85069409398 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See §Musema see also the Judgment in (ICTR 96-13-A), Trial Chamber I, 27 January where the Chamber 'notes from the Travaux Préparatoires of the Genocide Convention that the crime of complicity in genocide was recognised only where genocide had actually been committed. The Genocide Convention did not provide the possibility for punishment of complicity in an attempt to commit genocide, complicity in incitement to commit genocide nor complicity in conspiracy to commit genocide, all of which were, in the view of some States, too vague to be punishable under the Convention'
    • See Musema, supra note 8, §172, where the Chamber 'notes from the Travaux Préparatoires of the Genocide Convention that the crime of complicity in genocide was recognised only where genocide had actually been committed. The Genocide Convention did not provide the possibility for punishment of complicity in an attempt to commit genocide, complicity in incitement to commit genocide nor complicity in conspiracy to commit genocide, all of which were, in the view of some States, too vague to be punishable under the Convention'.
    • (2000) , pp. 172
  • 41
    • 85069410939 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g. Musema §see also the Judgment in (ICTR 96-13-A), Trial Chamber I, 27 January holding that 'the crime of conspiracy was included to punish acts which, in and of themselves, did not constitute genocide. The converse implication of this is that no purpose would be served in convicting an accused, who has already been found guilty of genocide, for conspiracy to commit genocide, on the basis of the same acts'
    • See, e.g. Musema, supra note 8, §198, holding that 'the crime of conspiracy was included to punish acts which, in and of themselves, did not constitute genocide. The converse implication of this is that no purpose would be served in convicting an accused, who has already been found guilty of genocide, for conspiracy to commit genocide, on the basis of the same acts';
    • (2000) , pp. 198
  • 42
    • 85069401100 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • but see the Judgement in Nahimana (ICTR-99-52-T), Trial Chamber I, 3 December holding all accused guilty of both genocide and conspiracy to commit genocide
    • but see the Judgement in Nahimana (ICTR-99-52-T), Trial Chamber I, 3 December 2003, holding all accused guilty of both genocide and conspiracy to commit genocide;
    • (2003)
  • 43
    • 85069412739 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Akayesu §Judgment, (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September holding that 'the fact that such acts are in themselves particularly dangerous because of the high risk they carry for society, even if they fail to produce results, warrants that they be punished as an exceptional measure' and §675 where the Chamber finds that 'the direct and public incitement to commit genocide as engaged in by Akayesu, was indeed successful', thus considering it to be a separate ground for liability in addition to genocide
    • see also Akayesu, supra note 1, §562, holding that 'the fact that such acts are in themselves particularly dangerous because of the high risk they carry for society, even if they fail to produce results, warrants that they be punished as an exceptional measure' and §675 where the Chamber finds that 'the direct and public incitement to commit genocide as engaged in by Akayesu, was indeed successful', thus considering it to be a separate ground for liability in addition to genocide.
    • (1998) , pp. 562
  • 44
    • 85069416442 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September supra
    • Akayesu, supra note 1, §497.
    • (1998) , pp. 497
  • 45
    • 85069399859 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Jelisić (IT-95-10-T), Trial Chamber I, 14 December §
    • Judgment, Jelisić (IT-95-10-T), Trial Chamber I, 14 December 1999, §100.
    • (1999) , pp. 100
  • 46
    • 85069403186 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Report of the Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court, Addendum, Elements of Crimes, UN doc. PCNICC/2000/1 Article 6 at
    • See Report of the Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court, Addendum, Elements of Crimes, UN doc. PCNICC/2000/1 (2000), Article 6 at 6-8.
    • (2000) , pp. 6-8
  • 47
    • 85069413454 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Although Art. 21(1)(a) ICCSt. include the Elements of Crimes as part of the applicable law, Art. 9(1) provides that they 'shall assist the Court in the interpretation' of crimes within the ICC's jurisdiction.
  • 48
    • 85069403518 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Article 10 expressly provides: 'Nothing in this Part shall be interpreted as limiting or prejudicing in any way existing or developing rules of international law for purposes other than this Statute'.
  • 49
    • 85069401783 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Musema (ICTR 96-13-A), Trial Chamber I, 27 January
    • Musema, supra note 8, §166.
    • (1998) , pp. 166
  • 50
    • 85069400695 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kambanda §Judgment, (ICTR 97-23-S), Trial Chamber I, 4 September §
    • Kambanda, supra note 3, §16.
    • (1998) , pp. 16
  • 51
    • 85069400066 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgement, Kayishema (ICTR-95-1-A), Appeals Chamber, 1 June §
    • Judgement, Kayishema (ICTR-95-1-A), Appeals Chamber, 1 June 2001, §367
    • (2001) , pp. 367
  • 52
    • 0347790461 scopus 로고
    • 'The Treatment of Inchoate Crimes in the Model Penal Code of the American Law Institute: Attempts, Solicitation and Conspiracy'
    • 571 at
    • H. Wechsler, W.K. Jones and H.L. Korn, 'The Treatment of Inchoate Crimes in the Model Penal Code of the American Law Institute: Attempts, Solicitation and Conspiracy', in 61 Columbia Law Review (1961) 571, at 579.
    • (1961) Columbia Law Review , vol.61 , pp. 579
    • Wechsler, H.1    Jones, W.K.2    Korn, H.L.3
  • 53
    • 85069414554 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g. Krstić § Judgment, (IT-98-33-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 April §
    • See, e.g. Krstić, supra note 28, § 6-23.
    • (2004) , pp. 6-23
  • 54
    • 85069416814 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kayishema §Judgment, (ICTR-95-1-T), Trial Chamber II, 21 May §
    • Kayishema, supra note 15, §96.
    • (1999) , pp. 96
  • 55
    • 85069398816 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Judgment, Bagilishema (ICTR 95-1A-T), Trial Chamber I, 7 June §
    • See Judgment, Bagilishema (ICTR 95-1A-T), Trial Chamber I, 7 June 2001, §64
    • (2001) , pp. 64
  • 56
    • 85069401734 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Judgment, Semanza (ICTR 97-20-T), Trial Chamber III, 15 May §
    • and Judgment, Semanza (ICTR 97-20-T), Trial Chamber III, 15 May 2003, §316.
    • (2003) , pp. 316
  • 57
    • 85069400766 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Krstić (IT-98-33-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 April §
    • Krstić, supra note 28, §13.
    • (2004) , pp. 13
  • 58
    • 85069399534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Art. 22(2) ICCSt
    • See Art. 22(2) ICCSt.
  • 59
    • 85069412716 scopus 로고
    • See Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 22, UN doc. A/50/22 §
    • See Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 22, UN doc. A/50/22 (1995), § 60-61.
    • (1995) , pp. 60-61
  • 60
    • 85069410089 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Akayesu, supra note 1, §80.
    • (1998) , pp. 80
  • 61
    • 85069404496 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., §81.
    • (1998) , pp. 81
  • 62
    • 85069412148 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., §82.
    • (1998) , pp. 82
  • 63
    • 85069400302 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., §83.
    • (1998) , pp. 83
  • 64
    • 85069412578 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid.
    • (1998) , pp. 83
  • 65
    • 85069412666 scopus 로고
    • See Summary Records of the meetings of the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly. UN doc. GAOR, 21 September-10 December 3rd Sess., 6th Committee
    • See Summary Records of the meetings of the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly. UN doc. GAOR, 21 September-10 December 1948, 3rd Sess., 6th Committee, 97.
    • (1948) , pp. 97
  • 66
    • 85069412872 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Akayesu, supra note 1, §513.
    • (1998) , pp. 513
  • 67
    • 85069411033 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., §516.
    • (1998) , pp. 516
  • 68
    • 85069415529 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., §702.
    • (1998) , pp. 702
  • 69
    • 85069406424 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Kayishema (ICTR-95-1-T), Trial Chamber II, 21 May §
    • Kayishema, supra note 15, §98.
    • (1999) , pp. 98
  • 70
    • 85069406352 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Kayishema (ICTR-95-1-T), Trial Chamber II, 21 May §
    • Ibid., §523.
    • (1999) , pp. 523
  • 71
    • 85069411749 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Rutaganda (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Rutaganda, supra note 8, §56.
    • (1998) , pp. 56
  • 72
    • 85069400200 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Rutaganda (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., §57.
    • (1998) , pp. 57
  • 73
    • 85069398953 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Musema (ICTR-95-1-T), Trial Chamber II, 21 May §
    • Musema, supra note 8, §165.
    • (1998) , pp. 165
  • 74
    • 85069416605 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICTY Judgement, Kupreškić (IT-95-16-T), Trial Chamber II, 14 January §
    • ICTY Judgement, Kupreškić (IT-95-16-T), Trial Chamber II, 14 January 2000, §636.
    • (2000) , pp. 636
  • 75
    • 85069405517 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgement, Kayishema (ICTR-95-1-A), Appeals Chamber, 1 June §
    • Kayishema, supra note 47, §151.
    • (2001) , pp. 151
  • 76
    • 85069409414 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Akayesu, supra note 1, 502.
    • (1998) , pp. 502
  • 77
    • 85069411696 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., §504.
    • (1998) , pp. 504
  • 78
    • 85069414004 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §Judgment, Kayishema (ICTR-95-1-T), Trial Chamber II, 21 May §
    • Kayishema, supra note 15, §109.
    • (1999) , pp. 109
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    • Akayesu § 706-707 and § Judgment, (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Akayesu, supra note 1, § 706-707 and § 711-712.
    • (1998) , pp. 711-712
  • 80
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    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., §505.
    • (1998) , pp. 505
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    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., §506.
    • (1998) , pp. 506
  • 82
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    • §Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., §507.
    • (1998) , pp. 507
  • 83
    • 85069410530 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid.
    • (1998) , pp. 507
  • 84
    • 85069407497 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR 96-4-T), Trial Chamber I, 2 September
    • Ibid., §509.
    • (1998) , pp. 509
  • 85
    • 79551523338 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Forty-Eighth Session
    • See UN doc. A/51/10,6 May-26 July 1996, GAOR, 51st Sess., Supp. No. 10, 91
    • See Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Forty-Eighth Session. UN doc. A/51/10,6 May-26 July 1996, GAOR, 51st Sess., Supp. No. 10, 91.
  • 86
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    • See Draft Convention on the Crime of Genocide, UN doc. E/447
    • See Draft Convention on the Crime of Genocide, UN doc. E/447 (1947), 6-7.
    • (1947) , pp. 6-7
  • 87
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    • See (New Haven: Yale University Press), at 12 (referring to Winston Churchill's statement that the Holocaust was a 'crime without a name')
    • See L. Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), at 12 (referring to Winston Churchill's statement that the Holocaust was a 'crime without a name').
    • (1981) Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century
    • Kuper, L.1


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