Identity and political consciousness in southern Mozambique, 1930-1974: Two presbyterian biographies contextualised

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 223-236

  Cruz E Silva, Teresa ^a,b  

^a University of Eduardo Mondlane   (Mozambique)

^b EDUARDO MONDLANE UNIVERSITY   (Mozambique)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 26444465183     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057079808708574     Document Type: Review

References (76)

1. This article is adapted from material in my thesis: T. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches and the Formation of Political Consciousness in Southern Mozambique (1930-1974): The case of the Swiss Mission' (PhD Thesis, University of Bradford, Bradford, 1996). I would like to thank my thesis supervisors Professor A. Hastings, Dr G. Littlejohn and Dr D. Hedges for their encouragement and guidance. I am particularly grateful to Dr D. Hedges and Dr G. Littlejohn for making useful comments on this paper, and for correcting and editing the English text. I should also like to thank Andre-Daniel Clerc of the former Swiss Mission, Casimiro Mathié, Sebastião Mabote, Catarina Simbine, Lina Magaia and Bento Sitói for sharing their invaluable and sometimes unique experiences and ideas. My thanks are also extended to the Ford Foundation, SAREC and the British Council for research funds.
2. For further information see Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches'.
3. Lina Magaia writes for newspapers and has published books illustrating Mozambique's social problems, including Dumba Nenque: Run for Your Life (Africa World Press, New York, 1988).
4. See J. Van Butselaar, Africains, Missionaires et Colonialistes. Les origines de l'Eglise Presbyterienne du Mozambique (Mission Suisse), 1880-1896 (E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1984); Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', chap. 2.
5. Following others scholars, I have adopted the designation Tsonga as an ethnic group referring to Thonga, Shangaan and Ronga speakers. For more information, see P. Harries, 'The Roots of Ethnicity: Discourse and the Politics of Language Construction in South-East Africa', African Affairs, 87 (1988), pp. 25-52;
6. P. Harries, 'Exclusion, Classification and Internal Colonialism: The Emergence of Ethnicity Among the Tsonga-Speakers of South Africa', in L. Vail (ed), The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (James Currey, London, 1989), pp. 82-117;
7. P. Harries, Work, Culture and Identity, Migrant Labourers in Mozambique and South Africa c. 1860-1910 (James Currey, London, 1994).
8. See also B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (Verso, London, 1993);
9. H. Junod, The Life of a Southern African Tribe (Macmillan, London, Second Edition, 1927, translated into French, 1936, and Portuguese, 1944, 1972, 1974, 1996).
10. Harries, 'The Roots'; 'Exclusion, Classification'; Work, Culture.
11. Harries, The Roots'; 'Exclusion, Classification Work, Culture Ibid.
12. Harries, 'The Roots', pp. 43-44.
13. On the 'Estado Novo', see M. B. da Cruz, O Partido e o Estado no Salazarismo (Editorial Presença, Lisboa, 1988).
14. Regulamento do Exercício das Missões Religiosas de Diversas Confissōes e Nacionalidades e das Escolas do Ensino Primário pelas Mesmas, Aprovado pelos Diplomas Legislativos no. 167 e 168 de 3 de Agosto de 1929 (Imprensa Moderna, Lourenço Marques, 1929).
15. See D. Hedges, 'Missões e Ideologia Política de Assimilação, 1930-1961', Cadernos de História, 5 (1985), pp. 41-73.
16. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', pp. 93-105.
17. Cruz e Silva Protestant Churches 93-105. Ibid.
18. For further information see E. S. Ferreira, Le Colonialisme Portugais en Afrique: La Fin d'Une Ére (UNESCO, Paris, 1974).
19. See A. Helgesson, 'Church, State and People in Mozambique. An Historical Study with Special Emphasis on Methodist Developments in the Inhambane Region' (PhD thesis, University of Uppsala, 1994), pp. 240-241;
20. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', chap. 3.
21. C. Rohrbasser, L'Oeuvre Sociale de la Mission Suisse au Mozambique (Université de Lausanne, 1991), pp. 107-108.
22. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', pp. 221-228.
23. D. Hedges and A. Chilundo, 'A Contestação da Situação Colonial, 1945-1961', in D. Hedges (ed.), História de Moçambique, Vol. III: Moçambique no Age do Colonialismo, 1930-1961 (Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, 1993), pp. 211-212.
24. Hedges A. Chilundo, A Contestação da Situação Colonial, 1945-1961 História de Moçambique, Vol. III: Moçambique no Age do Colonialismo, 1930-1961 1993, pp. 211-212. Ibid.
25. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', p. 145.
26. Eduardo Mondlane, The Struggle for Mozambique (Zed Press, London, 1983), p. 115.
27. Eduardo Mondlane, The Struggle for Mozambique 1983, p. 115. Ibid.
28. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', p. 148.
29. In the early 1920s, the Gremio Africano (African Guild) was formed, which later evolved into the Associação Africana. A split organised by a more radical wing led to the formation of the Instituto Negrofilo (1931), which the colonial regime later forced to change its name to Centro Associativo dos Negros de Moçambique. For further information see Mondlane, The Struggle, pp. 105-106.
30. Eduardo Mondlane was born in a small village in southern Mozambique and received his primary school education at the Swiss Mission where he was very active in the mintlawa youth groups. After working in the countryside as an evangelist and Mission school teacher, he did his secondary studies and went on to university in South Africa on a Swiss Mission grant. In 1950, he went to Lisbon and subsequently pursued his studies in the United States.
31. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', pp. 148-150;
32. Isabel Casimiro, Movimento Associativo como Foco de Nacionalismo - Movimento Estudantil - NESAM e AAM (Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, 1979).
33. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', pp. 149-150.
34. Cruz e Silva Protestant Churches pp. 149-150. Ibid.
35. Mondlane, The Struggle, p. 109;
36. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', pp. 151-152.
37. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', pp. 169-170, 229-230.
38. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', p. 173.
39. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', pp. 271-301.
40. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', pp. 232-239.
41. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', pp. 302-310.
42. Interview, Sebastião Mabote, Maputo, 15 July 1994.
43. For many others, the state's refusal to authorise a school prevented further studies.
44. Ibid. It seems that this hymn, like many others, was translated from French or English into Tsonga or Portuguese.
45. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', chaps 4, 6.
46. Interview, Sebastião Mabote, 15 July, 1994.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. A.D. Clerc and E. Morgenthaler, Le Mouvement des Equipes ou Patrouilles 'Ntlawa' au Mozambique (Lausanne, mimeo, 1950), pp. 16-17.
50. A.D. Clerc E. Morgenthaler, Le Mouvement des Equipes ou Patrouilles 'Ntlawa' au Mozambique Ibid., p. 45.
51. T. Cruz e Silva, 'A Missão Suiça e o Sistema de Educação não Formal para Raparigas: as Experiências de Maússe e Chicumbane (1930-1974)', Arquivo, 18 (1995), pp. 115-128.
52. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', pp. 271-301.
53. B. Bozzoli, Women of Phokeng: consciousness, life strategy, and migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (James Currey, London, 1991), p. 1.
54. Interview, Lina Magaia, Maputo, 30 and 31 January, 1996.
55. André-Daniel Clerc was a Swiss missionary who worked in Mozambique from 1929 to 1967. His main activities were in education, particularly with young people. Zedequias Manganhela followed Gabriel Macávi as leader of the consistory of the Swiss Mission. Manganhela worked with young people in Chamanculo parish and established the Swiss Mission in the northern part of the country. He was jailed by the political police and was assassinated in prison by the colonial authorities in 1972.
56. Interview, Lina Magaia, 30 and 31 January, 1996.
57. Ibid.
58. Ibid.
59. T. Cruz e Silva, 'A "IV Regiao" da FRELIMO no Sul de Moçambiquer Lourenço Marques, 1964-65', Estudos Moçambicanos, 8 (1990), pp. 125-142.
60. A. D. Clerc, Chitlangou, Son of a Chief (Negro Universities Press, 1971). This book is a translation of a French edition.
61. Interview by T. Cruz e Silva and Alexandrino José with A. D. Clerc, Lausanne 1 October 1985.
62. Eduardo Mondlane went to Lisbon in 1950 to continue his studies, and later moved to the United States on a Swiss Mission/Methodist Episcopal Mission grant organised by André-Daniel Clerc. He finished his PhD worked as a university research assistant and got a job as Research Officer in the Trusteeship Department of the United Nations. In 1961, while working for the United Nations he revisited Mozambique. There was a widespread welcome for Mondlane and his wife, reflecting the stature he had already gained as an international figure considered as the representative as well the 'son' of an oppressed people
63. See E. W. Smith, Aggrey of African: a Study in Black and White (The Garden City Press, London, 1929), pp. 136-137.
64. F. L. Cross, The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press, 2nd edn, 1990), p. 1029.
65. Interview, Lina Magaia, 30 and 31 January 1996.
66. Ibid.
67. F. Wilson, 'Ethnicity and Gender in a Modernizing World', in P. Kaarshholm and J. Hultin (eds), Inventions and Boundaries: Historical and Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism, International Development Studies, (Roskilde, 1994), pp. 9-12.
68. M. Wuyts, 'Economia Política do Colonialismo Português em Moçambique', Estudos Moçambicanos, 1 (1980), pp. 9-12.
69. Interview, Lina Magaia, 30 and 31 January, 1996.
70. J. Lonsdale, 'Moral ethnicity and political tribalism', in P. Kaarsholm and J. Hultin (eds), Inventions and Boundaries, p. 138.
71. Interview, Lina Magaia, 30 and 31 January 1996.
72. Bento Sitói was born in Lourenço Marques in 1947 and was educated in the Swiss Mission. Interview, Maputo, 8 September 1992.
73. R. B. Honwana, Memórias: Histórias Ouvidas e Vividas e da Terra (Maputo, 1985), p. 72.
74. Cruz e Silva, 'Protestant Churches', pp. 74-75;
75. Helgesson, Church, State and People, p. 417.
76. T. CRUZ E SILVA Centro de Estudos Africanos, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, C.P. 1993, Maputo, Mozambique