Prostitution and moral reform in the borderlands: El Paso, 1890-1920

Journal of the History of Sexuality

Volumn 12, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 575-604

  Gabbert, Ann R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT EL PASO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 2642525459     PISSN: 10434070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/sex.2004.0028     Document Type: Review

References (295)

1. See Owen P. White, The Autobiography of a Durable Sinner (New York, 1942); Owen P. White, Out of the Desert: The Historical Romance of El Paso (El Paso, 1923); Owen P. White, "El Paso," American Mercury 2 (1924); H. Gordon Frost, The Gentlemen's Club: The Story of Prostitution in El Paso (El Paso, 1983); C. L. Sonnichsen, Pass of the North: Sour Centuries on the Rio Grande, 2 vols. (El Paso, 1968-80). There is no doubt that many of these traditions fall into the category of what Richard White has called "myths" of the "imagined West," an ahistorical place where a "man has to do what a man has to do" and the individual, rather than the family, was the fundamental social unit. Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), 615-16; Jack C. Vowell Jr., "Politics at El Paso: 1850-1920" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 1952, 121-22).
2. See Owen P. White, The Autobiography of a Durable Sinner (New York, 1942); Owen P. White, Out of the Desert: The Historical Romance of El Paso (El Paso, 1923); Owen P. White, "El Paso," American Mercury 2 (1924); H. Gordon Frost, The Gentlemen's Club: The Story of Prostitution in El Paso (El Paso, 1983); C. L. Sonnichsen, Pass of the North: Sour Centuries on the Rio Grande, 2 vols. (El Paso, 1968-80). There is no doubt that many of these traditions fall into the category of what Richard White has called "myths" of the "imagined West," an ahistorical place where a "man has to do what a man has to do" and the individual, rather than the family, was the fundamental social unit. Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), 615-16; Jack C. Vowell Jr., "Politics at El Paso: 1850-1920" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 1952, 121-22).
3. See Owen P. White, The Autobiography of a Durable Sinner (New York, 1942); Owen P. White, Out of the Desert: The Historical Romance of El Paso (El Paso, 1923); Owen P. White, "El Paso," American Mercury 2 (1924); H. Gordon Frost, The Gentlemen's Club: The Story of Prostitution in El Paso (El Paso, 1983); C. L. Sonnichsen, Pass of the North: Sour Centuries on the Rio Grande, 2 vols. (El Paso, 1968-80). There is no doubt that many of these traditions fall into the category of what Richard White has called "myths" of the "imagined West," an ahistorical place where a "man has to do what a man has to do" and the individual, rather than the family, was the fundamental social unit. Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), 615-16; Jack C. Vowell Jr., "Politics at El Paso: 1850-1920" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 1952, 121-22).
4. See Owen P. White, The Autobiography of a Durable Sinner (New York, 1942); Owen P. White, Out of the Desert: The Historical Romance of El Paso (El Paso, 1923); Owen P. White, "El Paso," American Mercury 2 (1924); H. Gordon Frost, The Gentlemen's Club: The Story of Prostitution in El Paso (El Paso, 1983); C. L. Sonnichsen, Pass of the North: Sour Centuries on the Rio Grande, 2 vols. (El Paso, 1968-80). There is no doubt that many of these traditions fall into the category of what Richard White has called "myths" of the "imagined West," an ahistorical place where a "man has to do what a man has to do" and the individual, rather than the family, was the fundamental social unit. Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), 615-16; Jack C. Vowell Jr., "Politics at El Paso: 1850-1920" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 1952, 121-22).
5. See Owen P. White, The Autobiography of a Durable Sinner (New York, 1942); Owen P. White, Out of the Desert: The Historical Romance of El Paso (El Paso, 1923); Owen P. White, "El Paso," American Mercury 2 (1924); H. Gordon Frost, The Gentlemen's Club: The Story of Prostitution in El Paso (El Paso, 1983); C. L. Sonnichsen, Pass of the North: Sour Centuries on the Rio Grande, 2 vols. (El Paso, 1968-80). There is no doubt that many of these traditions fall into the category of what Richard White has called "myths" of the "imagined West," an ahistorical place where a "man has to do what a man has to do" and the individual, rather than the family, was the fundamental social unit. Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), 615-16; Jack C. Vowell Jr., "Politics at El Paso: 1850-1920" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 1952, 121-22).
6. See Owen P. White, The Autobiography of a Durable Sinner (New York, 1942); Owen P. White, Out of the Desert: The Historical Romance of El Paso (El Paso, 1923); Owen P. White, "El Paso," American Mercury 2 (1924); H. Gordon Frost, The Gentlemen's Club: The Story of Prostitution in El Paso (El Paso, 1983); C. L. Sonnichsen, Pass of the North: Sour Centuries on the Rio Grande, 2 vols. (El Paso, 1968-80). There is no doubt that many of these traditions fall into the category of what Richard White has called "myths" of the "imagined West," an ahistorical place where a "man has to do what a man has to do" and the individual, rather than the family, was the fundamental social unit. Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), 615-16; Jack C. Vowell Jr., "Politics at El Paso: 1850-1920" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 1952, 121-22).
7. See Owen P. White, The Autobiography of a Durable Sinner (New York, 1942); Owen P. White, Out of the Desert: The Historical Romance of El Paso (El Paso, 1923); Owen P. White, "El Paso," American Mercury 2 (1924); H. Gordon Frost, The Gentlemen's Club: The Story of Prostitution in El Paso (El Paso, 1983); C. L. Sonnichsen, Pass of the North: Sour Centuries on the Rio Grande, 2 vols. (El Paso, 1968-80). There is no doubt that many of these traditions fall into the category of what Richard White has called "myths" of the "imagined West," an ahistorical place where a "man has to do what a man has to do" and the individual, rather than the family, was the fundamental social unit. Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), 615-16; Jack C. Vowell Jr., "Politics at El Paso: 1850-1920" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 1952, 121-22).
8. White, Autobiography, 41, 59-60, 79, 90-91, 187. Utah Street was renamed twice, first to Broadway and then to Mesa Street, to obscure its notoriety. The vice district was interchangeably referred to as the Utah Street Reservation, the tenderloin, and the Zone of Toleration.
9. Howard Brown Woolston, Prostitution. Volume I - Prior to the Entrance of the United States into the World War (New York, 1921), 121-22, 310; Frost, 210-25; John Middagh, Frontier Newspaper: The El Paso Times (El Paso, 1958), 289, 292. Terms such as sin city, purity, moral reform, morally correct, vice, social hygiene, race, race suicide, civil liberties, and cleanup campaigns pepper the pages of this essay. While I have used these value-laden expressions, sometimes in quotes and sometimes without, because they are part of the lexicon of the period, their usage is an attempt to remain faithful to the primary sources and does not imply acceptance of an underlying belief system or an anachronistic projection of twenty-first-century values and concerns upon a previous era.
10. Howard Brown Woolston, Prostitution. Volume I - Prior to the Entrance of the United States into the World War (New York, 1921), 121-22, 310; Frost, 210-25; John Middagh, Frontier Newspaper: The El Paso Times (El Paso, 1958), 289, 292. Terms such as sin city, purity, moral reform, morally correct, vice, social hygiene, race, race suicide, civil liberties, and cleanup campaigns pepper the pages of this essay. While I have used these value-laden expressions, sometimes in quotes and sometimes without, because they are part of the lexicon of the period, their usage is an attempt to remain faithful to the primary sources and does not imply acceptance of an underlying belief system or an anachronistic projection of twenty-first-century values and concerns upon a previous era.
11. Howard Brown Woolston, Prostitution. Volume I - Prior to the Entrance of the United States into the World War (New York, 1921), 121-22, 310; Frost, 210-25; John Middagh, Frontier Newspaper: The El Paso Times (El Paso, 1958), 289, 292. Terms such as sin city, purity, moral reform, morally correct, vice, social hygiene, race, race suicide, civil liberties, and cleanup campaigns pepper the pages of this essay. While I have used these value-laden expressions, sometimes in quotes and sometimes without, because they are part of the lexicon of the period, their usage is an attempt to remain faithful to the primary sources and does not imply acceptance of an underlying belief system or an anachronistic projection of twenty-first-century values and concerns upon a previous era.
12. Mexico under Porfirio Diaz was also going through a modernizing phase that in many ways mirrored reforms north of the border. See Robert M. Buffington, Criminal and Citizen in Modern Mexico (Lincoln, Neb., 2000); Katherine Elaine Bliss, Compromised Positions: Prostitution, Public Health, and Gender Politics in Revolutionary Mexico City(University Park, Pa., 2001); William E. French, "Prostitutes and Guardian Angels: Women, Work, and the Family in Porfirian Mexico," Hispanic American Historical Review 72, no. 4 (1992): 529-53; Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Lincoln, Neb., 1986). For a Latin American perspective, see Donna J. Guy, "'White Slavery': Citizenship and Nationality in Argentina," in Andrew Parker et al., eds., Nationalism & Sexualities (New York, 1992), 201-17; and Donna J. Guy, Sex and Danger in Buenos Aires: Prostitution, family, and Nation in Argentina (Lincoln, Neb., 1991).
13. Mexico under Porfirio Diaz was also going through a modernizing phase that in many ways mirrored reforms north of the border. See Robert M. Buffington, Criminal and Citizen in Modern Mexico (Lincoln, Neb., 2000); Katherine Elaine Bliss, Compromised Positions: Prostitution, Public Health, and Gender Politics in Revolutionary Mexico City(University Park, Pa., 2001); William E. French, "Prostitutes and Guardian Angels: Women, Work, and the Family in Porfirian Mexico," Hispanic American Historical Review 72, no. 4 (1992): 529-53; Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Lincoln, Neb., 1986). For a Latin American perspective, see Donna J. Guy, "'White Slavery': Citizenship and Nationality in Argentina," in Andrew Parker et al., eds., Nationalism & Sexualities (New York, 1992), 201-17; and Donna J. Guy, Sex and Danger in Buenos Aires: Prostitution, family, and Nation in Argentina (Lincoln, Neb., 1991).
14. Mexico under Porfirio Diaz was also going through a modernizing phase that in many ways mirrored reforms north of the border. See Robert M. Buffington, Criminal and Citizen in Modern Mexico (Lincoln, Neb., 2000); Katherine Elaine Bliss, Compromised Positions: Prostitution, Public Health, and Gender Politics in Revolutionary Mexico City(University Park, Pa., 2001); William E. French, "Prostitutes and Guardian Angels: Women, Work, and the Family in Porfirian Mexico," Hispanic American Historical Review 72, no. 4 (1992): 529-53; Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Lincoln, Neb., 1986). For a Latin American perspective, see Donna J. Guy, "'White Slavery': Citizenship and Nationality in Argentina," in Andrew Parker et al., eds., Nationalism & Sexualities (New York, 1992), 201-17; and Donna J. Guy, Sex and Danger in Buenos Aires: Prostitution, family, and Nation in Argentina (Lincoln, Neb., 1991).
15. Mexico under Porfirio Diaz was also going through a modernizing phase that in many ways mirrored reforms north of the border. See Robert M. Buffington, Criminal and Citizen in Modern Mexico (Lincoln, Neb., 2000); Katherine Elaine Bliss, Compromised Positions: Prostitution, Public Health, and Gender Politics in Revolutionary Mexico City(University Park, Pa., 2001); William E. French, "Prostitutes and Guardian Angels: Women, Work, and the Family in Porfirian Mexico," Hispanic American Historical Review 72, no. 4 (1992): 529-53; Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Lincoln, Neb., 1986). For a Latin American perspective, see Donna J. Guy, "'White Slavery': Citizenship and Nationality in Argentina," in Andrew Parker et al., eds., Nationalism & Sexualities (New York, 1992), 201-17; and Donna J. Guy, Sex and Danger in Buenos Aires: Prostitution, family, and Nation in Argentina (Lincoln, Neb., 1991).
16. Mexico under Porfirio Diaz was also going through a modernizing phase that in many ways mirrored reforms north of the border. See Robert M. Buffington, Criminal and Citizen in Modern Mexico (Lincoln, Neb., 2000); Katherine Elaine Bliss, Compromised Positions: Prostitution, Public Health, and Gender Politics in Revolutionary Mexico City(University Park, Pa., 2001); William E. French, "Prostitutes and Guardian Angels: Women, Work, and the Family in Porfirian Mexico," Hispanic American Historical Review 72, no. 4 (1992): 529-53; Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Lincoln, Neb., 1986). For a Latin American perspective, see Donna J. Guy, "'White Slavery': Citizenship and Nationality in Argentina," in Andrew Parker et al., eds., Nationalism & Sexualities (New York, 1992), 201-17; and Donna J. Guy, Sex and Danger in Buenos Aires: Prostitution, family, and Nation in Argentina (Lincoln, Neb., 1991).
17. Mexico under Porfirio Diaz was also going through a modernizing phase that in many ways mirrored reforms north of the border. See Robert M. Buffington, Criminal and Citizen in Modern Mexico (Lincoln, Neb., 2000); Katherine Elaine Bliss, Compromised Positions: Prostitution, Public Health, and Gender Politics in Revolutionary Mexico City(University Park, Pa., 2001); William E. French, "Prostitutes and Guardian Angels: Women, Work, and the Family in Porfirian Mexico," Hispanic American Historical Review 72, no. 4 (1992): 529-53; Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Lincoln, Neb., 1986). For a Latin American perspective, see Donna J. Guy, "'White Slavery': Citizenship and Nationality in Argentina," in Andrew Parker et al., eds., Nationalism & Sexualities (New York, 1992), 201-17; and Donna J. Guy, Sex and Danger in Buenos Aires: Prostitution, family, and Nation in Argentina (Lincoln, Neb., 1991).
18. El Paso's population growth rate was 1,304.62 percent in the decade between 1880 and 1890, with continued growth to 77,560 by 1920. United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census of the Population of El Paso, Tex., January 15, 1916 (Washington, D.C., 1916); El Paso: The Queen City of the Southwest (El Paso, 1904); White, Autobiography, 43; Mario T. García, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven, Conn., 1981), 11, 13, 2, 27; El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, Ohio, 1887), 7; David E. Lorey, ed., United States-Mexico Border Statistics since 1900 (Los Angeles, 1990), 46. See also Lone Star Annual for the Year 1885 (El Paso, 1885); Charles T. Race, El Paso as a Health Resort (St. Louis, 1884); El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, 1887); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1917); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1914).
19. El Paso's population growth rate was 1,304.62 percent in the decade between 1880 and 1890, with continued growth to 77,560 by 1920. United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census of the Population of El Paso, Tex., January 15, 1916 (Washington, D.C., 1916); El Paso: The Queen City of the Southwest (El Paso, 1904); White, Autobiography, 43; Mario T. García, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven, Conn., 1981), 11, 13, 2, 27; El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, Ohio, 1887), 7; David E. Lorey, ed., United States-Mexico Border Statistics since 1900 (Los Angeles, 1990), 46. See also Lone Star Annual for the Year 1885 (El Paso, 1885); Charles T. Race, El Paso as a Health Resort (St. Louis, 1884); El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, 1887); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1917); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1914).
20. El Paso's population growth rate was 1,304.62 percent in the decade between 1880 and 1890, with continued growth to 77,560 by 1920. United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census of the Population of El Paso, Tex., January 15, 1916 (Washington, D.C., 1916); El Paso: The Queen City of the Southwest (El Paso, 1904); White, Autobiography, 43; Mario T. García, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven, Conn., 1981), 11, 13, 2, 27; El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, Ohio, 1887), 7; David E. Lorey, ed., United States-Mexico Border Statistics since 1900 (Los Angeles, 1990), 46. See also Lone Star Annual for the Year 1885 (El Paso, 1885); Charles T. Race, El Paso as a Health Resort (St. Louis, 1884); El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, 1887); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1917); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1914).
21. El Paso's population growth rate was 1,304.62 percent in the decade between 1880 and 1890, with continued growth to 77,560 by 1920. United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census of the Population of El Paso, Tex., January 15, 1916 (Washington, D.C., 1916); El Paso: The Queen City of the Southwest (El Paso, 1904); White, Autobiography, 43; Mario T. García, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven, Conn., 1981), 11, 13, 2, 27; El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, Ohio, 1887), 7; David E. Lorey, ed., United States-Mexico Border Statistics since 1900 (Los Angeles, 1990), 46. See also Lone Star Annual for the Year 1885 (El Paso, 1885); Charles T. Race, El Paso as a Health Resort (St. Louis, 1884); El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, 1887); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1917); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1914).
22. El Paso's population growth rate was 1,304.62 percent in the decade between 1880 and 1890, with continued growth to 77,560 by 1920. United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census of the Population of El Paso, Tex., January 15, 1916 (Washington, D.C., 1916); El Paso: The Queen City of the Southwest (El Paso, 1904); White, Autobiography, 43; Mario T. García, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven, Conn., 1981), 11, 13, 2, 27; El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, Ohio, 1887), 7; David E. Lorey, ed., United States-Mexico Border Statistics since 1900 (Los Angeles, 1990), 46. See also Lone Star Annual for the Year 1885 (El Paso, 1885); Charles T. Race, El Paso as a Health Resort (St. Louis, 1884); El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, 1887); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1917); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1914).
23. El Paso's population growth rate was 1,304.62 percent in the decade between 1880 and 1890, with continued growth to 77,560 by 1920. United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census of the Population of El Paso, Tex., January 15, 1916 (Washington, D.C., 1916); El Paso: The Queen City of the Southwest (El Paso, 1904); White, Autobiography, 43; Mario T. García, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven, Conn., 1981), 11, 13, 2, 27; El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, Ohio, 1887), 7; David E. Lorey, ed., United States-Mexico Border Statistics since 1900 (Los Angeles, 1990), 46. See also Lone Star Annual for the Year 1885 (El Paso, 1885); Charles T. Race, El Paso as a Health Resort (St. Louis, 1884); El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, 1887); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1917); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1914).
24. El Paso's population growth rate was 1,304.62 percent in the decade between 1880 and 1890, with continued growth to 77,560 by 1920. United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census of the Population of El Paso, Tex., January 15, 1916 (Washington, D.C., 1916); El Paso: The Queen City of the Southwest (El Paso, 1904); White, Autobiography, 43; Mario T. García, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven, Conn., 1981), 11, 13, 2, 27; El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, Ohio, 1887), 7; David E. Lorey, ed., United States-Mexico Border Statistics since 1900 (Los Angeles, 1990), 46. See also Lone Star Annual for the Year 1885 (El Paso, 1885); Charles T. Race, El Paso as a Health Resort (St. Louis, 1884); El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, 1887); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1917); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1914).
25. El Paso's population growth rate was 1,304.62 percent in the decade between 1880 and 1890, with continued growth to 77,560 by 1920. United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census of the Population of El Paso, Tex., January 15, 1916 (Washington, D.C., 1916); El Paso: The Queen City of the Southwest (El Paso, 1904); White, Autobiography, 43; Mario T. García, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven, Conn., 1981), 11, 13, 2, 27; El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, Ohio, 1887), 7; David E. Lorey, ed., United States-Mexico Border Statistics since 1900 (Los Angeles, 1990), 46. See also Lone Star Annual for the Year 1885 (El Paso, 1885); Charles T. Race, El Paso as a Health Resort (St. Louis, 1884); El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, 1887); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1917); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1914).
26. El Paso's population growth rate was 1,304.62 percent in the decade between 1880 and 1890, with continued growth to 77,560 by 1920. United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census of the Population of El Paso, Tex., January 15, 1916 (Washington, D.C., 1916); El Paso: The Queen City of the Southwest (El Paso, 1904); White, Autobiography, 43; Mario T. García, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven, Conn., 1981), 11, 13, 2, 27; El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, Ohio, 1887), 7; David E. Lorey, ed., United States-Mexico Border Statistics since 1900 (Los Angeles, 1990), 46. See also Lone Star Annual for the Year 1885 (El Paso, 1885); Charles T. Race, El Paso as a Health Resort (St. Louis, 1884); El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, 1887); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1917); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1914).
27. El Paso's population growth rate was 1,304.62 percent in the decade between 1880 and 1890, with continued growth to 77,560 by 1920. United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census of the Population of El Paso, Tex., January 15, 1916 (Washington, D.C., 1916); El Paso: The Queen City of the Southwest (El Paso, 1904); White, Autobiography, 43; Mario T. García, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven, Conn., 1981), 11, 13, 2, 27; El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, Ohio, 1887), 7; David E. Lorey, ed., United States-Mexico Border Statistics since 1900 (Los Angeles, 1990), 46. See also Lone Star Annual for the Year 1885 (El Paso, 1885); Charles T. Race, El Paso as a Health Resort (St. Louis, 1884); El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, 1887); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1917); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1914).
28. El Paso's population growth rate was 1,304.62 percent in the decade between 1880 and 1890, with continued growth to 77,560 by 1920. United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census of the Population of El Paso, Tex., January 15, 1916 (Washington, D.C., 1916); El Paso: The Queen City of the Southwest (El Paso, 1904); White, Autobiography, 43; Mario T. García, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven, Conn., 1981), 11, 13, 2, 27; El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, Ohio, 1887), 7; David E. Lorey, ed., United States-Mexico Border Statistics since 1900 (Los Angeles, 1990), 46. See also Lone Star Annual for the Year 1885 (El Paso, 1885); Charles T. Race, El Paso as a Health Resort (St. Louis, 1884); El Paso, Texas and Paso Del Norte, Mexico (Columbus, 1887); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1917); El Paso Chamber of Commerce, El Paso: What It Is and Why (El Paso, 1914).
29. Frost, 22-23, 30-31, 76-80, 140, 145; El Paso Herald, November 6, 1904. While the original intent of the city council was probably to locate the red-light zone in an area near the business district and the railroad station, within a decade this area had been relocated into the southside Mexican barrio Chihuahuita. This pattern of commercialization and then marginalization followed national trends. See Mara Laura Keire, "Vice in American Cities, 1890-1925" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 2002, 99-101).
30. Frost, 22-23, 30-31, 76-80, 140, 145; El Paso Herald, November 6, 1904. While the original intent of the city council was probably to locate the red-light zone in an area near the business district and the railroad station, within a decade this area had been relocated into the southside Mexican barrio Chihuahuita. This pattern of commercialization and then marginalization followed national trends. See Mara Laura Keire, "Vice in American Cities, 1890-1925" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 2002, 99-101).
31. Frost, 22-23, 30-31, 76-80, 140, 145; El Paso Herald, November 6, 1904. While the original intent of the city council was probably to locate the red-light zone in an area near the business district and the railroad station, within a decade this area had been relocated into the southside Mexican barrio Chihuahuita. This pattern of commercialization and then marginalization followed national trends. See Mara Laura Keire, "Vice in American Cities, 1890-1925" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 2002, 99-101).
32. Garna L. Christian, "Newton Baker's War on El Paso Vice," Red River Valley Historical Review 5, no. 2 (1980): 66; White, Out of the Desert, 215; White, Autobiography, 42.
33. Garna L. Christian, "Newton Baker's War on El Paso Vice," Red River Valley Historical Review 5, no. 2 (1980): 66; White, Out of the Desert, 215; White, Autobiography, 42.
34. Garna L. Christian, "Newton Baker's War on El Paso Vice," Red River Valley Historical Review 5, no. 2 (1980): 66; White, Out of the Desert, 215; White, Autobiography, 42.
35. Although the term segregated has racial connotations, the expression "segregated district" referred to a restricted area of a community where prostitution was controlled or tolerated.
36. United States Public Health Service, Syphilis, a Synopsis (Washington, D.C., 1967), 13; Prince A. Morrow, Social Diseases and Marriage: Social Prophylaxis (New York, 1904), 25. These figures probably represent what we would call life-risk for a disease, that is, the chances of contracting a disease during a lifetime. Although the validity of these statistics was questioned at the time, they are, at the very least, representative of a national fear of the magnitude of venereal disease. The accuracy of the numbers was affected by many variables. First and foremost, physicians generally were not required to report cases of venereal diseases to public health officials until after World War I. Even when so required, physicians resisted doing so because they believed that mandatory reporting of venereal cases was a violation of doctor-patient confidentiality and an imposition of the state upon the autonomy of the physician. More significantly, venereal disease due to its mode of transmission remained for many a private and moral issue, falling outside the normal guidelines for contagious disease. Second, many of those infected by venereal disease sought quack treatments or were asymptomatic and sought no treatment at all, thereby escaping enumeration. Statistics were also not accurate because of misdiagnosis, intentional mislabeling of diagnoses to spare the family embarrassment, and different patient populations for private physicians, military doctors, municipal hospitals, and clinics. See Richard C. Cabot, "Observations Regarding the Relative Frequency of the Different Diseases Prevalent in Boston and Its Vicinity," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 165, no. 5 (1911): 157-58; Prince A. Morrow, "The Frequency of Venereal Disease, a Reply to Dr. Cabot," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 165, no. 14 (1911): 521, 524; J. Patterson, "An Economic View of Venereal Infections," Journal of the American Medical Association 62 (1914): 668-69; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1917 (Washington, D.C., 1917), 410-11.
37. United States Public Health Service, Syphilis, a Synopsis (Washington, D.C., 1967), 13; Prince A. Morrow, Social Diseases and Marriage: Social Prophylaxis (New York, 1904), 25. These figures probably represent what we would call life-risk for a disease, that is, the chances of contracting a disease during a lifetime. Although the validity of these statistics was questioned at the time, they are, at the very least, representative of a national fear of the magnitude of venereal disease. The accuracy of the numbers was affected by many variables. First and foremost, physicians generally were not required to report cases of venereal diseases to public health officials until after World War I. Even when so required, physicians resisted doing so because they believed that mandatory reporting of venereal cases was a violation of doctor-patient confidentiality and an imposition of the state upon the autonomy of the physician. More significantly, venereal disease due to its mode of transmission remained for many a private and moral issue, falling outside the normal guidelines for contagious disease. Second, many of those infected by venereal disease sought quack treatments or were asymptomatic and sought no treatment at all, thereby escaping enumeration. Statistics were also not accurate because of misdiagnosis, intentional mislabeling of diagnoses to spare the family embarrassment, and different patient populations for private physicians, military doctors, municipal hospitals, and clinics. See Richard C. Cabot, "Observations Regarding the Relative Frequency of the Different Diseases Prevalent in Boston and Its Vicinity," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 165, no. 5 (1911): 157-58; Prince A. Morrow, "The Frequency of Venereal Disease, a Reply to Dr. Cabot," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 165, no. 14 (1911): 521, 524; J. Patterson, "An Economic View of Venereal Infections," Journal of the American Medical Association 62 (1914): 668-69; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1917 (Washington, D.C., 1917), 410-11.
38. United States Public Health Service, Syphilis, a Synopsis (Washington, D.C., 1967), 13; Prince A. Morrow, Social Diseases and Marriage: Social Prophylaxis (New York, 1904), 25. These figures probably represent what we would call life-risk for a disease, that is, the chances of contracting a disease during a lifetime. Although the validity of these statistics was questioned at the time, they are, at the very least, representative of a national fear of the magnitude of venereal disease. The accuracy of the numbers was affected by many variables. First and foremost, physicians generally were not required to report cases of venereal diseases to public health officials until after World War I. Even when so required, physicians resisted doing so because they believed that mandatory reporting of venereal cases was a violation of doctor-patient confidentiality and an imposition of the state upon the autonomy of the physician. More significantly, venereal disease due to its mode of transmission remained for many a private and moral issue, falling outside the normal guidelines for contagious disease. Second, many of those infected by venereal disease sought quack treatments or were asymptomatic and sought no treatment at all, thereby escaping enumeration. Statistics were also not accurate because of misdiagnosis, intentional mislabeling of diagnoses to spare the family embarrassment, and different patient populations for private physicians, military doctors, municipal hospitals, and clinics. See Richard C. Cabot, "Observations Regarding the Relative Frequency of the Different Diseases Prevalent in Boston and Its Vicinity," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 165, no. 5 (1911): 157-58; Prince A. Morrow, "The Frequency of Venereal Disease, a Reply to Dr. Cabot," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 165, no. 14 (1911): 521, 524; J. Patterson, "An Economic View of Venereal Infections," Journal of the American Medical Association 62 (1914): 668-69; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1917 (Washington, D.C., 1917), 410-11.
39. United States Public Health Service, Syphilis, a Synopsis (Washington, D.C., 1967), 13; Prince A. Morrow, Social Diseases and Marriage: Social Prophylaxis (New York, 1904), 25. These figures probably represent what we would call life-risk for a disease, that is, the chances of contracting a disease during a lifetime. Although the validity of these statistics was questioned at the time, they are, at the very least, representative of a national fear of the magnitude of venereal disease. The accuracy of the numbers was affected by many variables. First and foremost, physicians generally were not required to report cases of venereal diseases to public health officials until after World War I. Even when so required, physicians resisted doing so because they believed that mandatory reporting of venereal cases was a violation of doctor-patient confidentiality and an imposition of the state upon the autonomy of the physician. More significantly, venereal disease due to its mode of transmission remained for many a private and moral issue, falling outside the normal guidelines for contagious disease. Second, many of those infected by venereal disease sought quack treatments or were asymptomatic and sought no treatment at all, thereby escaping enumeration. Statistics were also not accurate because of misdiagnosis, intentional mislabeling of diagnoses to spare the family embarrassment, and different patient populations for private physicians, military doctors, municipal hospitals, and clinics. See Richard C. Cabot, "Observations Regarding the Relative Frequency of the Different Diseases Prevalent in Boston and Its Vicinity," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 165, no. 5 (1911): 157-58; Prince A. Morrow, "The Frequency of Venereal Disease, a Reply to Dr. Cabot," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 165, no. 14 (1911): 521, 524; J. Patterson, "An Economic View of Venereal Infections," Journal of the American Medical Association 62 (1914): 668-69; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1917 (Washington, D.C., 1917), 410-11.
40. United States Public Health Service, Syphilis, a Synopsis (Washington, D.C., 1967), 13; Prince A. Morrow, Social Diseases and Marriage: Social Prophylaxis (New York, 1904), 25. These figures probably represent what we would call life-risk for a disease, that is, the chances of contracting a disease during a lifetime. Although the validity of these statistics was questioned at the time, they are, at the very least, representative of a national fear of the magnitude of venereal disease. The accuracy of the numbers was affected by many variables. First and foremost, physicians generally were not required to report cases of venereal diseases to public health officials until after World War I. Even when so required, physicians resisted doing so because they believed that mandatory reporting of venereal cases was a violation of doctor-patient confidentiality and an imposition of the state upon the autonomy of the physician. More significantly, venereal disease due to its mode of transmission remained for many a private and moral issue, falling outside the normal guidelines for contagious disease. Second, many of those infected by venereal disease sought quack treatments or were asymptomatic and sought no treatment at all, thereby escaping enumeration. Statistics were also not accurate because of misdiagnosis, intentional mislabeling of diagnoses to spare the family embarrassment, and different patient populations for private physicians, military doctors, municipal hospitals, and clinics. See Richard C. Cabot, "Observations Regarding the Relative Frequency of the Different Diseases Prevalent in Boston and Its Vicinity," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 165, no. 5 (1911): 157-58; Prince A. Morrow, "The Frequency of Venereal Disease, a Reply to Dr. Cabot," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 165, no. 14 (1911): 521, 524; J. Patterson, "An Economic View of Venereal Infections," Journal of the American Medical Association 62 (1914): 668-69; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1917 (Washington, D.C., 1917), 410-11.
41. United States Public Health Service, Syphilis, a Synopsis (Washington, D.C., 1967), 13; Prince A. Morrow, Social Diseases and Marriage: Social Prophylaxis (New York, 1904), 25. These figures probably represent what we would call life-risk for a disease, that is, the chances of contracting a disease during a lifetime. Although the validity of these statistics was questioned at the time, they are, at the very least, representative of a national fear of the magnitude of venereal disease. The accuracy of the numbers was affected by many variables. First and foremost, physicians generally were not required to report cases of venereal diseases to public health officials until after World War I. Even when so required, physicians resisted doing so because they believed that mandatory reporting of venereal cases was a violation of doctor-patient confidentiality and an imposition of the state upon the autonomy of the physician. More significantly, venereal disease due to its mode of transmission remained for many a private and moral issue, falling outside the normal guidelines for contagious disease. Second, many of those infected by venereal disease sought quack treatments or were asymptomatic and sought no treatment at all, thereby escaping enumeration. Statistics were also not accurate because of misdiagnosis, intentional mislabeling of diagnoses to spare the family embarrassment, and different patient populations for private physicians, military doctors, municipal hospitals, and clinics. See Richard C. Cabot, "Observations Regarding the Relative Frequency of the Different Diseases Prevalent in Boston and Its Vicinity," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 165, no. 5 (1911): 157-58; Prince A. Morrow, "The Frequency of Venereal Disease, a Reply to Dr. Cabot," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 165, no. 14 (1911): 521, 524; J. Patterson, "An Economic View of Venereal Infections," Journal of the American Medical Association 62 (1914): 668-69; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1917 (Washington, D.C., 1917), 410-11.
42. Various authors have discussed prostitution in the Progressive Era. Some of the most helpful are Roy Lubove, "Progressives and Prostitution," Historian 24, no. 3 (1962); Egal Feldman, "Prostitution, the Alien Woman, and the Progressive Imagination, 1910-1915," American Quarterly 19, no. 2 (1967); John C. Burnham, "The Progressive Era Revolution in American Attitudes toward Sex," Journal of American History 59, no. 4 (1973); Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980); David J. Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation: The War on Prostitution, 1917- 21," Prologue 12, no. 1 (1980); Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore, Md., 1982); Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987); David J. Langum, Crossing over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act (Chicago, 1994).
43. Various authors have discussed prostitution in the Progressive Era. Some of the most helpful are Roy Lubove, "Progressives and Prostitution," Historian 24, no. 3 (1962); Egal Feldman, "Prostitution, the Alien Woman, and the Progressive Imagination, 1910-1915," American Quarterly 19, no. 2 (1967); John C. Burnham, "The Progressive Era Revolution in American Attitudes toward Sex," Journal of American History 59, no. 4 (1973); Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980); David J. Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation: The War on Prostitution, 1917- 21," Prologue 12, no. 1 (1980); Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore, Md., 1982); Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987); David J. Langum, Crossing over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act (Chicago, 1994).
44. Various authors have discussed prostitution in the Progressive Era. Some of the most helpful are Roy Lubove, "Progressives and Prostitution," Historian 24, no. 3 (1962); Egal Feldman, "Prostitution, the Alien Woman, and the Progressive Imagination, 1910-1915," American Quarterly 19, no. 2 (1967); John C. Burnham, "The Progressive Era Revolution in American Attitudes toward Sex," Journal of American History 59, no. 4 (1973); Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980); David J. Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation: The War on Prostitution, 1917- 21," Prologue 12, no. 1 (1980); Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore, Md., 1982); Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987); David J. Langum, Crossing over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act (Chicago, 1994).
45. Various authors have discussed prostitution in the Progressive Era. Some of the most helpful are Roy Lubove, "Progressives and Prostitution," Historian 24, no. 3 (1962); Egal Feldman, "Prostitution, the Alien Woman, and the Progressive Imagination, 1910-1915," American Quarterly 19, no. 2 (1967); John C. Burnham, "The Progressive Era Revolution in American Attitudes toward Sex," Journal of American History 59, no. 4 (1973); Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980); David J. Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation: The War on Prostitution, 1917- 21," Prologue 12, no. 1 (1980); Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore, Md., 1982); Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987); David J. Langum, Crossing over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act (Chicago, 1994).
46. Various authors have discussed prostitution in the Progressive Era. Some of the most helpful are Roy Lubove, "Progressives and Prostitution," Historian 24, no. 3 (1962); Egal Feldman, "Prostitution, the Alien Woman, and the Progressive Imagination, 1910-1915," American Quarterly 19, no. 2 (1967); John C. Burnham, "The Progressive Era Revolution in American Attitudes toward Sex," Journal of American History 59, no. 4 (1973); Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980); David J. Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation: The War on Prostitution, 1917- 21," Prologue 12, no. 1 (1980); Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore, Md., 1982); Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987); David J. Langum, Crossing over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act (Chicago, 1994).
47. Various authors have discussed prostitution in the Progressive Era. Some of the most helpful are Roy Lubove, "Progressives and Prostitution," Historian 24, no. 3 (1962); Egal Feldman, "Prostitution, the Alien Woman, and the Progressive Imagination, 1910-1915," American Quarterly 19, no. 2 (1967); John C. Burnham, "The Progressive Era Revolution in American Attitudes toward Sex," Journal of American History 59, no. 4 (1973); Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980); David J. Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation: The War on Prostitution, 1917- 21," Prologue 12, no. 1 (1980); Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore, Md., 1982); Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987); David J. Langum, Crossing over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act (Chicago, 1994).
48. Various authors have discussed prostitution in the Progressive Era. Some of the most helpful are Roy Lubove, "Progressives and Prostitution," Historian 24, no. 3 (1962); Egal Feldman, "Prostitution, the Alien Woman, and the Progressive Imagination, 1910-1915," American Quarterly 19, no. 2 (1967); John C. Burnham, "The Progressive Era Revolution in American Attitudes toward Sex," Journal of American History 59, no. 4 (1973); Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980); David J. Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation: The War on Prostitution, 1917- 21," Prologue 12, no. 1 (1980); Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore, Md., 1982); Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987); David J. Langum, Crossing over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act (Chicago, 1994).
49. Various authors have discussed prostitution in the Progressive Era. Some of the most helpful are Roy Lubove, "Progressives and Prostitution," Historian 24, no. 3 (1962); Egal Feldman, "Prostitution, the Alien Woman, and the Progressive Imagination, 1910-1915," American Quarterly 19, no. 2 (1967); John C. Burnham, "The Progressive Era Revolution in American Attitudes toward Sex," Journal of American History 59, no. 4 (1973); Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980); David J. Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation: The War on Prostitution, 1917- 21," Prologue 12, no. 1 (1980); Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore, Md., 1982); Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987); David J. Langum, Crossing over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act (Chicago, 1994).
50. Hobson, 18, 32; V. R. Springer et al. vs. The State (1884), 16 Tex. Ct. App. 591, 1884 Tex. Crim. App. Lexis 156 (Court of Appeals of Texas).
51. Hobson, 18, 32; V. R. Springer et al. vs. The State (1884), 16 Tex. Ct. App. 591, 1884 Tex. Crim. App. Lexis 156 (Court of Appeals of Texas).
52. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (New York, 1990), 24, 34, 42-43, 82-83.
53. Kai T. Erikson, Wayward Puritans: A Study in the Sociology of Deviance (New York, 1966), 6-7, 11, 22.
54. Various acts to legislate morality during the Progressive Era included the Mann Act (1910), the Chamberlain-Kahn Bill (1914), and the Volstead Act (1919). For an overview of nineteenth-century antiprostitution reforms, see David J. Pivar, Purity Crusade, Sexual Morality, and Social Control: 1858-1900 (Westport, Conn., 1973).
55. Matthew Ramsey, "Public Health in France," in Dorothy Porter, ed., The History of Public Health and the Modern State (Amsterdam, 1994), 60; Abraham Flexner, Prostitution in Europe (New York, 1914); William W. Sanger, The History of Prostitution: Its Extent, Causes and Effects throughout the World, new ed. (New York, 1937), 695- 98; Committee of One-hundred for the Suppression of Commercialized Vice in St. Louis, Brief in Support of Citizens' Memorial to the Board of Police Commissioners of St. Louis, Missouri, on the illegality and inexpediency of segregating commercialized vice in St. Louis (St. Louis, 1914); Hobson, 147-49; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a forecast (New York, n.d.), 4; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas, from the 1830s to the 1960s," East Texas Historical Journal 33, no. 1 (1995): 27-30; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution and Public Policy in Austin, Texas, 1870-1915," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 86, no. 4 (1983): 485. In 1915 this loophole was closed by the Supreme Court of Texas in a case involving the El Paso tenderloin. See Frank A. Spence, et al., Plaintiffs in Error, vs. W. H. Fenchler, et al., Defendants in Error, 107 Tex. 443, 180 S. W. 597, 1915 Tex. Lexis 192 (Supreme Court of Texas); El Paso Herald, December 8, 1915. For a thorough discussion of the nuances of antiprostitution laws with a focus on Texas, see Thomas C. Mackey, Red Lights Out: A Legal History of Prostitution, Disorderly Houses, and Vice Districts, 1870-1917 (New York, 1987).
56. Matthew Ramsey, "Public Health in France," in Dorothy Porter, ed., The History of Public Health and the Modern State (Amsterdam, 1994), 60; Abraham Flexner, Prostitution in Europe (New York, 1914); William W. Sanger, The History of Prostitution: Its Extent, Causes and Effects throughout the World, new ed. (New York, 1937), 695- 98; Committee of One-hundred for the Suppression of Commercialized Vice in St. Louis, Brief in Support of Citizens' Memorial to the Board of Police Commissioners of St. Louis, Missouri, on the illegality and inexpediency of segregating commercialized vice in St. Louis (St. Louis, 1914); Hobson, 147-49; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a forecast (New York, n.d.), 4; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas, from the 1830s to the 1960s," East Texas Historical Journal 33, no. 1 (1995): 27-30; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution and Public Policy in Austin, Texas, 1870-1915," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 86, no. 4 (1983): 485. In 1915 this loophole was closed by the Supreme Court of Texas in a case involving the El Paso tenderloin. See Frank A. Spence, et al., Plaintiffs in Error, vs. W. H. Fenchler, et al., Defendants in Error, 107 Tex. 443, 180 S. W. 597, 1915 Tex. Lexis 192 (Supreme Court of Texas); El Paso Herald, December 8, 1915. For a thorough discussion of the nuances of antiprostitution laws with a focus on Texas, see Thomas C. Mackey, Red Lights Out: A Legal History of Prostitution, Disorderly Houses, and Vice Districts, 1870-1917 (New York, 1987).
57. Matthew Ramsey, "Public Health in France," in Dorothy Porter, ed., The History of Public Health and the Modern State (Amsterdam, 1994), 60; Abraham Flexner, Prostitution in Europe (New York, 1914); William W. Sanger, The History of Prostitution: Its Extent, Causes and Effects throughout the World, new ed. (New York, 1937), 695- 98; Committee of One-hundred for the Suppression of Commercialized Vice in St. Louis, Brief in Support of Citizens' Memorial to the Board of Police Commissioners of St. Louis, Missouri, on the illegality and inexpediency of segregating commercialized vice in St. Louis (St. Louis, 1914); Hobson, 147-49; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a forecast (New York, n.d.), 4; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas, from the 1830s to the 1960s," East Texas Historical Journal 33, no. 1 (1995): 27-30; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution and Public Policy in Austin, Texas, 1870-1915," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 86, no. 4 (1983): 485. In 1915 this loophole was closed by the Supreme Court of Texas in a case involving the El Paso tenderloin. See Frank A. Spence, et al., Plaintiffs in Error, vs. W. H. Fenchler, et al., Defendants in Error, 107 Tex. 443, 180 S. W. 597, 1915 Tex. Lexis 192 (Supreme Court of Texas); El Paso Herald, December 8, 1915. For a thorough discussion of the nuances of antiprostitution laws with a focus on Texas, see Thomas C. Mackey, Red Lights Out: A Legal History of Prostitution, Disorderly Houses, and Vice Districts, 1870-1917 (New York, 1987).
58. Matthew Ramsey, "Public Health in France," in Dorothy Porter, ed., The History of Public Health and the Modern State (Amsterdam, 1994), 60; Abraham Flexner, Prostitution in Europe (New York, 1914); William W. Sanger, The History of Prostitution: Its Extent, Causes and Effects throughout the World, new ed. (New York, 1937), 695- 98; Committee of One-hundred for the Suppression of Commercialized Vice in St. Louis, Brief in Support of Citizens' Memorial to the Board of Police Commissioners of St. Louis, Missouri, on the illegality and inexpediency of segregating commercialized vice in St. Louis (St. Louis, 1914); Hobson, 147-49; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a forecast (New York, n.d.), 4; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas, from the 1830s to the 1960s," East Texas Historical Journal 33, no. 1 (1995): 27-30; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution and Public Policy in Austin, Texas, 1870-1915," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 86, no. 4 (1983): 485. In 1915 this loophole was closed by the Supreme Court of Texas in a case involving the El Paso tenderloin. See Frank A. Spence, et al., Plaintiffs in Error, vs. W. H. Fenchler, et al., Defendants in Error, 107 Tex. 443, 180 S. W. 597, 1915 Tex. Lexis 192 (Supreme Court of Texas); El Paso Herald, December 8, 1915. For a thorough discussion of the nuances of antiprostitution laws with a focus on Texas, see Thomas C. Mackey, Red Lights Out: A Legal History of Prostitution, Disorderly Houses, and Vice Districts, 1870-1917 (New York, 1987).
59. Matthew Ramsey, "Public Health in France," in Dorothy Porter, ed., The History of Public Health and the Modern State (Amsterdam, 1994), 60; Abraham Flexner, Prostitution in Europe (New York, 1914); William W. Sanger, The History of Prostitution: Its Extent, Causes and Effects throughout the World, new ed. (New York, 1937), 695- 98; Committee of One-hundred for the Suppression of Commercialized Vice in St. Louis, Brief in Support of Citizens' Memorial to the Board of Police Commissioners of St. Louis, Missouri, on the illegality and inexpediency of segregating commercialized vice in St. Louis (St. Louis, 1914); Hobson, 147-49; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a forecast (New York, n.d.), 4; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas, from the 1830s to the 1960s," East Texas Historical Journal 33, no. 1 (1995): 27-30; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution and Public Policy in Austin, Texas, 1870-1915," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 86, no. 4 (1983): 485. In 1915 this loophole was closed by the Supreme Court of Texas in a case involving the El Paso tenderloin. See Frank A. Spence, et al., Plaintiffs in Error, vs. W. H. Fenchler, et al., Defendants in Error, 107 Tex. 443, 180 S. W. 597, 1915 Tex. Lexis 192 (Supreme Court of Texas); El Paso Herald, December 8, 1915. For a thorough discussion of the nuances of antiprostitution laws with a focus on Texas, see Thomas C. Mackey, Red Lights Out: A Legal History of Prostitution, Disorderly Houses, and Vice Districts, 1870-1917 (New York, 1987).
60. Matthew Ramsey, "Public Health in France," in Dorothy Porter, ed., The History of Public Health and the Modern State (Amsterdam, 1994), 60; Abraham Flexner, Prostitution in Europe (New York, 1914); William W. Sanger, The History of Prostitution: Its Extent, Causes and Effects throughout the World, new ed. (New York, 1937), 695- 98; Committee of One-hundred for the Suppression of Commercialized Vice in St. Louis, Brief in Support of Citizens' Memorial to the Board of Police Commissioners of St. Louis, Missouri, on the illegality and inexpediency of segregating commercialized vice in St. Louis (St. Louis, 1914); Hobson, 147-49; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a forecast (New York, n.d.), 4; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas, from the 1830s to the 1960s," East Texas Historical Journal 33, no. 1 (1995): 27-30; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution and Public Policy in Austin, Texas, 1870-1915," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 86, no. 4 (1983): 485. In 1915 this loophole was closed by the Supreme Court of Texas in a case involving the El Paso tenderloin. See Frank A. Spence, et al., Plaintiffs in Error, vs. W. H. Fenchler, et al., Defendants in Error, 107 Tex. 443, 180 S. W. 597, 1915 Tex. Lexis 192 (Supreme Court of Texas); El Paso Herald, December 8, 1915. For a thorough discussion of the nuances of antiprostitution laws with a focus on Texas, see Thomas C. Mackey, Red Lights Out: A Legal History of Prostitution, Disorderly Houses, and Vice Districts, 1870-1917 (New York, 1987).
61. Matthew Ramsey, "Public Health in France," in Dorothy Porter, ed., The History of Public Health and the Modern State (Amsterdam, 1994), 60; Abraham Flexner, Prostitution in Europe (New York, 1914); William W. Sanger, The History of Prostitution: Its Extent, Causes and Effects throughout the World, new ed. (New York, 1937), 695- 98; Committee of One-hundred for the Suppression of Commercialized Vice in St. Louis, Brief in Support of Citizens' Memorial to the Board of Police Commissioners of St. Louis, Missouri, on the illegality and inexpediency of segregating commercialized vice in St. Louis (St. Louis, 1914); Hobson, 147-49; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a forecast (New York, n.d.), 4; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas, from the 1830s to the 1960s," East Texas Historical Journal 33, no. 1 (1995): 27-30; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution and Public Policy in Austin, Texas, 1870-1915," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 86, no. 4 (1983): 485. In 1915 this loophole was closed by the Supreme Court of Texas in a case involving the El Paso tenderloin. See Frank A. Spence, et al., Plaintiffs in Error, vs. W. H. Fenchler, et al., Defendants in Error, 107 Tex. 443, 180 S. W. 597, 1915 Tex. Lexis 192 (Supreme Court of Texas); El Paso Herald, December 8, 1915. For a thorough discussion of the nuances of antiprostitution laws with a focus on Texas, see Thomas C. Mackey, Red Lights Out: A Legal History of Prostitution, Disorderly Houses, and Vice Districts, 1870-1917 (New York, 1987).
62. Matthew Ramsey, "Public Health in France," in Dorothy Porter,
63. Matthew Ramsey, "Public Health in France," in Dorothy Porter, ed., The History of Public Health and the Modern State (Amsterdam, 1994), 60; Abraham Flexner, Prostitution in Europe (New York, 1914); William W. Sanger, The History of Prostitution: Its Extent, Causes and Effects throughout the World, new ed. (New York, 1937), 695- 98; Committee of One-hundred for the Suppression of Commercialized Vice in St. Louis, Brief in Support of Citizens' Memorial to the Board of Police Commissioners of St. Louis, Missouri, on the illegality and inexpediency of segregating commercialized vice in St. Louis (St. Louis, 1914); Hobson, 147-49; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a forecast (New York, n.d.), 4; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas, from the 1830s to the 1960s," East Texas Historical Journal 33, no. 1 (1995): 27-30; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution and Public Policy in Austin, Texas, 1870-1915," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 86, no. 4 (1983): 485. In 1915 this loophole was closed by the Supreme Court of Texas in a case involving the El Paso tenderloin. See Frank A. Spence, et al., Plaintiffs in Error, vs. W. H. Fenchler, et al., Defendants in Error, 107 Tex. 443, 180 S. W. 597, 1915 Tex. Lexis 192 (Supreme Court of Texas); El Paso Herald, December 8, 1915. For a thorough discussion of the nuances of antiprostitution laws with a focus on Texas, see Thomas C. Mackey, Red Lights Out: A Legal History of Prostitution, Disorderly Houses, and Vice Districts, 1870-1917 (New York, 1987).
64. Matthew Ramsey, "Public Health in France," in Dorothy Porter, ed., The History of Public Health and the Modern State (Amsterdam, 1994), 60; Abraham Flexner, Prostitution in Europe (New York, 1914); William W. Sanger, The History of Prostitution: Its Extent, Causes and Effects throughout the World, new ed. (New York, 1937), 695- 98; Committee of One-hundred for the Suppression of Commercialized Vice in St. Louis, Brief in Support of Citizens' Memorial to the Board of Police Commissioners of St. Louis, Missouri, on the illegality and inexpediency of segregating commercialized vice in St. Louis (St. Louis, 1914); Hobson, 147-49; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a forecast (New York, n.d.), 4; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas, from the 1830s to the 1960s," East Texas Historical Journal 33, no. 1 (1995): 27-30; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution and Public Policy in Austin, Texas, 1870-1915," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 86, no. 4 (1983): 485. In 1915 this loophole was closed by the Supreme Court of Texas in a case involving the El Paso tenderloin. See Frank A. Spence, et al., Plaintiffs in Error, vs. W. H. Fenchler, et al., Defendants in Error, 107 Tex. 443, 180 S. W. 597, 1915 Tex. Lexis 192 (Supreme Court of Texas); El Paso Herald, December 8, 1915. For a thorough discussion of the nuances of antiprostitution laws with a focus on Texas, see Thomas C. Mackey, Red Lights Out: A Legal History of Prostitution, Disorderly Houses, and Vice Districts, 1870-1917 (New York, 1987).
65. Matthew Ramsey, "Public Health in France," in Dorothy Porter, ed., The History of Public Health and the Modern State (Amsterdam, 1994), 60; Abraham Flexner, Prostitution in Europe (New York, 1914); William W. Sanger, The History of Prostitution: Its Extent, Causes and Effects throughout the World, new ed. (New York, 1937), 695- 98; Committee of One-hundred for the Suppression of Commercialized Vice in St. Louis, Brief in Support of Citizens' Memorial to the Board of Police Commissioners of St. Louis, Missouri, on the illegality and inexpediency of segregating commercialized vice in St. Louis (St. Louis, 1914); Hobson, 147-49; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a forecast (New York, n.d.), 4; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas, from the 1830s to the 1960s," East Texas Historical Journal 33, no. 1 (1995): 27-30; David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution and Public Policy in Austin, Texas, 1870-1915," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 86, no. 4 (1983): 485. In 1915 this loophole was closed by the Supreme Court of Texas in a case involving the El Paso tenderloin. See Frank A. Spence, et al., Plaintiffs in Error, vs. W. H. Fenchler, et al., Defendants in Error, 107 Tex. 443, 180 S. W. 597, 1915 Tex. Lexis 192 (Supreme Court of Texas); El Paso Herald, December 8, 1915. For a thorough discussion of the nuances of antiprostitution laws with a focus on Texas, see Thomas C. Mackey, Red Lights Out: A Legal History of Prostitution, Disorderly Houses, and Vice Districts, 1870-1917 (New York, 1987).
66. Powell, 22, 26. For a complete contextual explanation, see Judith R. Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State (New York, 1980). A summary of the Contagious Diseases Acts can be found in Dorothy Porter, Health, Civilization and the State (New York, 1999), 130-34. The acts were repealed in 1886
67. Powell, 22, 26. For a complete contextual explanation, see Judith R. Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State (New York, 1980). A summary of the Contagious Diseases Acts can be found in Dorothy Porter, Health, Civilization and the State (New York, 1999), 130-34. The acts were repealed in 1886.
68. Powell, 22, 26. For a complete contextual explanation, see Judith R. Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State (New York, 1980). A summary of the Contagious Diseases Acts can be found in Dorothy Porter, Health, Civilization and the State (New York, 1999), 130-34. The acts were repealed in 1886.
69. Rosen, 9-11; Frederic Russel Sturgis, Prostitution: Its Suppression or Control (New York, 1901), 1-3; Valery Havard, "The Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Journal of the Association of Military Surgeons of the United States 15 (1904); Valery Havard, "The Value of Statistics in Connection with Venereal Diseases in the Army and Navy," Military Surgeon 14 (1904); Connelly, 87. For the most part, El Paso physicians throughout the Progressive Era advocated treatment of venereal disease in a nonjudgmental fashion. See White, Autobiography, 48; V. V. Wood, "The U.S. Government Free Venereal Clinic," Southwestern Medicine 2 (1918): 7.
70. Rosen, 9-11; Frederic Russel Sturgis, Prostitution: Its Suppression or Control (New York, 1901), 1-3; Valery Havard, "The Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Journal of the Association of Military Surgeons of the United States 15 (1904); Valery Havard, "The Value of Statistics in Connection with Venereal Diseases in the Army and Navy," Military Surgeon 14 (1904); Connelly, 87. For the most part, El Paso physicians throughout the Progressive Era advocated treatment of venereal disease in a nonjudgmental fashion. See White, Autobiography, 48; V. V. Wood, "The U.S. Government Free Venereal Clinic," Southwestern Medicine 2 (1918): 7.
71. Rosen, 9-11; Frederic Russel Sturgis, Prostitution: Its Suppression or Control (New York, 1901), 1-3; Valery Havard, "The Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Journal of the Association of Military Surgeons of the United States 15 (1904); Valery Havard, "The Value of Statistics in Connection with Venereal Diseases in the Army and Navy," Military Surgeon 14 (1904); Connelly, 87. For the most part, El Paso physicians throughout the Progressive Era advocated treatment of venereal disease in a nonjudgmental fashion. See White, Autobiography, 48; V. V. Wood, "The U.S. Government Free Venereal Clinic," Southwestern Medicine 2 (1918): 7.
72. Rosen, 9-11; Frederic Russel Sturgis, Prostitution: Its Suppression or Control (New York, 1901), 1-3; Valery Havard, "The Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Journal of the Association of Military Surgeons of the United States 15 (1904); Valery Havard, "The Value of Statistics in Connection with Venereal Diseases in the Army and Navy," Military Surgeon 14 (1904); Connelly, 87. For the most part, El Paso physicians throughout the Progressive Era advocated treatment of venereal disease in a nonjudgmental fashion. See White, Autobiography, 48; V. V. Wood, "The U.S. Government Free Venereal Clinic," Southwestern Medicine 2 (1918): 7.
73. Rosen, 9-11; Frederic Russel Sturgis, Prostitution: Its Suppression or Control (New York, 1901), 1-3; Valery Havard, "The Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Journal of the Association of Military Surgeons of the United States 15 (1904); Valery Havard, "The Value of Statistics in Connection with Venereal Diseases in the Army and Navy," Military Surgeon 14 (1904); Connelly, 87. For the most part, El Paso physicians throughout the Progressive Era advocated treatment of venereal disease in a nonjudgmental fashion. See White, Autobiography, 48; V. V. Wood, "The U.S. Government Free Venereal Clinic," Southwestern Medicine 2 (1918): 7.
74. Rosen, 9-11; Frederic Russel Sturgis, Prostitution: Its Suppression or Control (New York, 1901), 1-3; Valery Havard, "The Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Journal of the Association of Military Surgeons of the United States 15 (1904); Valery Havard, "The Value of Statistics in Connection with Venereal Diseases in the Army and Navy," Military Surgeon 14 (1904); Connelly, 87. For the most part, El Paso physicians throughout the Progressive Era advocated treatment of venereal disease in a nonjudgmental fashion. See White, Autobiography, 48; V. V. Wood, "The U.S. Government Free Venereal Clinic," Southwestern Medicine 2 (1918): 7.
75. Rosen, 9-11; Frederic Russel Sturgis, Prostitution: Its Suppression or Control (New York, 1901), 1-3; Valery Havard, "The Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Journal of the Association of Military Surgeons of the United States 15 (1904); Valery Havard, "The Value of Statistics in Connection with Venereal Diseases in the Army and Navy," Military Surgeon 14 (1904); Connelly, 87. For the most part, El Paso physicians throughout the Progressive Era advocated treatment of venereal disease in a nonjudgmental fashion. See White, Autobiography, 48; V. V. Wood, "The U.S. Government Free Venereal Clinic," Southwestern Medicine 2 (1918): 7.
76. Previously, diagnosis was based solely on physical examination. Syphilis has three stages. In the early stage an ulcer develops that spontaneously heals. Several weeks later a rash develops on the skin, mouth, mucus membranes, and genitals. This also spontaneously improves in two to six weeks. In the final stages of syphilis there is involvement of the heart, nervous system, and other organs. Because of this pattern of seeming remission, many syphilitics prior to the discovery of chemotherapeutics such as Salvarsan in 1909 and penicillin in 1943 assumed that they were cured because their symptoms had vanished, not realizing that they were still contagious. Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York, 1988), 113-14; United States Public Health Service, Syphilis, a Synopsis, 10-12; Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York, 1985), 12, 41, 130, 161. For a general discussion of the popular acceptance of germ theory in the United States, see Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, 1998).
77. Previously, diagnosis was based solely on physical examination. Syphilis has three stages. In the early stage an ulcer develops that spontaneously heals. Several weeks later a rash develops on the skin, mouth, mucus membranes, and genitals. This also spontaneously improves in two to six weeks. In the final stages of syphilis there is involvement of the heart, nervous system, and other organs. Because of this pattern of seeming remission, many syphilitics prior to the discovery of chemotherapeutics such as Salvarsan in 1909 and penicillin in 1943 assumed that they were cured because their symptoms had vanished, not realizing that they were still contagious. Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York, 1988), 113-14; United States Public Health Service, Syphilis, a Synopsis, 10-12; Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York, 1985), 12, 41, 130, 161. For a general discussion of the popular acceptance of germ theory in the United States, see Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, 1998).
78. Previously, diagnosis was based solely on physical examination. Syphilis has three stages. In the early stage an ulcer develops that spontaneously heals. Several weeks later a rash develops on the skin, mouth, mucus membranes, and genitals. This also spontaneously improves in two to six weeks. In the final stages of syphilis there is involvement of the heart, nervous system, and other organs. Because of this pattern of seeming remission, many syphilitics prior to the discovery of chemotherapeutics such as Salvarsan in 1909 and penicillin in 1943 assumed that they were cured because their symptoms had vanished, not realizing that they were still contagious. Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York, 1988), 113-14; United States Public Health Service, Syphilis, a Synopsis, 10-12; Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York, 1985), 12, 41, 130, 161. For a general discussion of the popular acceptance of germ theory in the United States, see Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, 1998).
79. Previously, diagnosis was based solely on physical examination. Syphilis has three stages. In the early stage an ulcer develops that spontaneously heals. Several weeks later a rash develops on the skin, mouth, mucus membranes, and genitals. This also spontaneously improves in two to six weeks. In the final stages of syphilis there is involvement of the heart, nervous system, and other organs. Because of this pattern of seeming remission, many syphilitics prior to the discovery of chemotherapeutics such as Salvarsan in 1909 and penicillin in 1943 assumed that they were cured because their symptoms had vanished, not realizing that they were still contagious. Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York, 1988), 113-14; United States Public Health Service, Syphilis, a Synopsis, 10-12; Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York, 1985), 12, 41, 130, 161. For a general discussion of the popular acceptance of germ theory in the United States, see Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, 1998).
80. Ziporyn, 115; Rosen, 53; Prince A. Morrow, "Publicity as a Factor in Venereal Prophylaxis," Journal of the American Medical Association 47 (1906): 1244-46; Morrow, Social Diseases, 27, 109-10; "Report of the Committee on Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Journal of the American Medical Association (1903).
81. Ziporyn, 115; Rosen, 53; Prince A. Morrow, "Publicity as a Factor in Venereal Prophylaxis," Journal of the American Medical Association 47 (1906): 1244-46; Morrow, Social Diseases, 27, 109-10; "Report of the Committee on Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Journal of the American Medical Association (1903).
82. Ziporyn, 115; Rosen, 53; Prince A. Morrow, "Publicity as a Factor in Venereal Prophylaxis," Journal of the American Medical Association 47 (1906): 1244-46; Morrow, Social Diseases, 27, 109-10; "Report of the Committee on Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Journal of the American Medical Association (1903).
83. Ziporyn, 115; Rosen, 53; Prince A. Morrow, "Publicity as a Factor in Venereal Prophylaxis," Journal of the American Medical Association 47 (1906): 1244-46; Morrow, Social Diseases, 27, 109-10; "Report of the Committee on Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Journal of the American Medical Association (1903).
84. Ziporyn, 115; Rosen, 53; Prince A. Morrow, "Publicity as a Factor in Venereal Prophylaxis," Journal of the American Medical Association 47 (1906): 1244-46; Morrow, Social Diseases, 27, 109-10; "Report of the Committee on Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Journal of the American Medical Association (1903).
85. Burnham, "Progressive Era Revolution," 891-92; Ziporyn, 113-20; Foucault, 21; El Paso Times, June 12, 1900, October 24, 1901. See also W. J. Herdman, "The Duty of the Medical Profession to the Public in the Matter of Venereal Disease, and How to Discharge It," Journal of the American Medical Association 47 (1906): 1246.
86. Burnham, "Progressive Era Revolution," 891-92; Ziporyn, 113-20; Foucault, 21; El Paso Times, June 12, 1900, October 24, 1901. See also W. J. Herdman, "The Duty of the Medical Profession to the Public in the Matter of Venereal Disease, and How to Discharge It," Journal of the American Medical Association 47 (1906): 1246.
87. Burnham, "Progressive Era Revolution," 891-92; Ziporyn, 113-20; Foucault, 21; El Paso Times, June 12, 1900, October 24, 1901. See also W. J. Herdman, "The Duty of the Medical Profession to the Public in the Matter of Venereal Disease, and How to Discharge It," Journal of the American Medical Association 47 (1906): 1246.
88. Burnham, "Progressive Era Revolution," 891-92; Ziporyn, 113-20; Foucault, 21; El Paso Times, June 12, 1900, October 24, 1901. See also W. J. Herdman, "The Duty of the Medical Profession to the Public in the Matter of Venereal Disease, and How to Discharge It," Journal of the American Medical Association 47 (1906): 1246.
89. Burnham, "Progressive Era Revolution," 891-92; Ziporyn, 113-20; Foucault, 21; El Paso Times, June 12, 1900, October 24, 1901. See also W. J. Herdman, "The Duty of the Medical Profession to the Public in the Matter of Venereal Disease, and How to Discharge It," Journal of the American Medical Association 47 (1906): 1246.
90. Hobson, 152-53.
91. Morrow, Social Diseases, 260-62, 334, 339.
92. Morrow, Social Diseases, 344.
93. Woolston, 194.
94. Patterson, "An Economic View," 670.
95. Mary Spongberg, Feminizing Venereal Disease: The Body of the Prostitute in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse (New York, 1997), 101.
96. Hobson, 49-51, 150-52. For examples, see Maude Glasgow, On the Regulation of Prostitution with special reference to paragraph 79 of the Page Bill (1910); Maurice Bigelow et al., Report of the Special Committee on the Matter and Methods of Sex Education, 2nd ed. (New York, 1913); Mrs. T. Curtis, The Traffic in Women (Boston, 1912); Katharine Houghton Hepburn, Woman Suffrage and the Social Evil (New York, 1914).
97. Hobson, 49-51, 150-52. For examples, see Maude Glasgow, On the Regulation of Prostitution with special reference to paragraph 79 of the Page Bill (1910); Maurice Bigelow et al., Report of the Special Committee on the Matter and Methods of Sex Education, 2nd ed. (New York, 1913); Mrs. T. Curtis, The Traffic in Women (Boston, 1912); Katharine Houghton Hepburn, Woman Suffrage and the Social Evil (New York, 1914).
98. Hobson, 49-51, 150-52. For examples, see Maude Glasgow, On the Regulation of Prostitution with special reference to paragraph 79 of the Page Bill (1910); Maurice Bigelow et al., Report of the Special Committee on the Matter and Methods of Sex Education, 2nd ed. (New York, 1913); Mrs. T. Curtis, The Traffic in Women (Boston, 1912); Katharine Houghton Hepburn, Woman Suffrage and the Social Evil (New York, 1914).
99. Hobson, 49-51, 150-52. For examples, see Maude Glasgow, On the Regulation of Prostitution with special reference to paragraph 79 of the Page Bill (1910); Maurice Bigelow et al., Report of the Special Committee on the Matter and Methods of Sex Education, 2nd ed. (New York, 1913); Mrs. T. Curtis, The Traffic in Women (Boston, 1912); Katharine Houghton Hepburn, Woman Suffrage and the Social Evil (New York, 1914).
100. Hobson, 49-51, 150-52. For examples, see Maude Glasgow, On the Regulation of Prostitution with special reference to paragraph 79 of the Page Bill (1910); Maurice Bigelow et al., Report of the Special Committee on the Matter and Methods of Sex Education, 2nd ed. (New York, 1913); Mrs. T. Curtis, The Traffic in Women (Boston, 1912); Katharine Houghton Hepburn, Woman Suffrage and the Social Evil (New York, 1914).
101. As a member of a family of abolitionists and suffragists, Blackwell would have been familiar with the Republican party rhetoric linking polygamy and slavery as the "twin relics of barbarism" because of the double sexual standard inherent in both. While polygamy allows males access to multiple sexual partners through marriage, in slavery "a whole race is delivered over to prostitution and concubinage, without the protection of any law." Donald Bruce Johnson and Kirk Harold Porter, National Party Platforms, 1840-1972 (Urbana, Ill., 1973), 27; Charles Sumner, Charles Sumner: His Complete Works, 20 vols. (New York, 1969), 6:133.
102. As a member of a family of abolitionists and suffragists, Blackwell would have been familiar with the Republican party rhetoric linking polygamy and slavery as the "twin relics of barbarism" because of the double sexual standard inherent in both. While polygamy allows males access to multiple sexual partners through marriage, in slavery "a whole race is delivered over to prostitution and concubinage, without the protection of any law." Donald Bruce Johnson and Kirk Harold Porter, National Party Platforms, 1840-1972 (Urbana, Ill., 1973), 27; Charles Sumner, Charles Sumner: His Complete Works, 20 vols. (New York, 1969), 6:133.
103. Powell, 73. See also Katherine C. Bushnell, Take Warning! (1910); Joseph R. Gusfield, Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement (Urbana, Ill., 1963), 74-77.
104. Powell, 73. See also Katherine C. Bushnell, Take Warning! (1910); Joseph R. Gusfield, Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement (Urbana, Ill., 1963), 74-77.
105. Powell, 73. See also Katherine C. Bushnell, Take Warning! (1910); Joseph R. Gusfield, Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement (Urbana, Ill., 1963), 74-77.
106. Mary E. Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995), 10-11, 14-15, 36-37; Judith N. McArthur, Creating the New Woman: The Rise of Southern Women's Progressive Culture in Texas, 1893-1918 (Urbana, Ill., 1998), 84, 132.
107. Mary E. Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995), 10-11, 14-15, 36-37; Judith N. McArthur, Creating the New Woman: The Rise of Southern Women's Progressive Culture in Texas, 1893-1918 (Urbana, Ill., 1998), 84, 132.
108. El Paso Herald, January 2, 1896, June 8, 1896, February 11, 1898, February 20, 1900; Frost, 125-26. Nationally, the WCTU tended to be middle- and upper- class white, Anglo-Protestant women. This trend was probably true in the El Paso area as well, as there is evidence of a Mexican Temperance League functioning during the same time. See García, 220.
109. El Paso Herald, January 2, 1896, June 8, 1896, February 11, 1898, February 20, 1900; Frost, 125-26. Nationally, the WCTU tended to be middle- and upper- class white, Anglo-Protestant women. This trend was probably true in the El Paso area as well, as there is evidence of a Mexican Temperance League functioning during the same time. See García, 220.
110. El Paso Herald, January 2, 1896, June 8, 1896, February 11, 1898, February 20, 1900; Frost, 125-26. Nationally, the WCTU tended to be middle- and upper- class white, Anglo-Protestant women. This trend was probably true in the El Paso area as well, as there is evidence of a Mexican Temperance League functioning during the same time. See García, 220.
111. White, "El Paso," 443; White, Autobiography, 79; El Paso Herald, February 4, 1905. The research tracing the tax and deed records for property located within the Reservation has not been completed. Therefore, a complete list of the El Pasoans involved in the vice industry is not yet determined.
112. White, "El Paso," 443; White, Autobiography, 79; El Paso Herald, February 4, 1905. The research tracing the tax and deed records for property located within the Reservation has not been completed. Therefore, a complete list of the El Pasoans involved in the vice industry is not yet determined.
113. White, "El Paso," 443; White, Autobiography, 79; El Paso Herald, February 4, 1905. The research tracing the tax and deed records for property located within the Reservation has not been completed. Therefore, a complete list of the El Pasoans involved in the vice industry is not yet determined.
114. White, Autobiography, 73. Tillie Howard was a well-known local madam.
115. The Democratic party machine dominated El Paso politics for almost twenty years. See Vowell.
116. See Garcia, 155-71.
117. The Mexican population of El Paso was 53 percent of the population in 1916, 52 percent in 1920. Although black-white racial relations in El Paso never approximated southern patterns of racism, the presence of black troops at Fort Bliss, the local army base, from 1900 to 1906 did destabilize local race relations. The socioeconomic figures are an approximation and were extrapolated from occupational distribution charts of El Paso labor in 1920 based on city directories and statistics from the 1920 U.S. census. See United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census, 6; García, 86, 69; United States Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1920), 2:73, 1036-37, 3:996; United States Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920 (Washington, D.C., 1923), 526. See also Jo Ann Platt Hovious, "Social Change in Western Towns: El Paso, Texas, 1881-1889" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 1972), 151-76; Marilyn T. Bryan, "The Economic, Political, and Social Status of the Negro in El Paso," Password 13, no. 4 (1968).
118. The Mexican population of El Paso was 53 percent of the population in 1916, 52 percent in 1920. Although black-white racial relations in El Paso never approximated southern patterns of racism, the presence of black troops at Fort Bliss, the local army base, from 1900 to 1906 did destabilize local race relations. The socioeconomic figures are an approximation and were extrapolated from occupational distribution charts of El Paso labor in 1920 based on city directories and statistics from the 1920 U.S. census. See United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census, 6; García, 86, 69; United States Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1920), 2:73, 1036-37, 3:996; United States Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920 (Washington, D.C., 1923), 526. See also Jo Ann Platt Hovious, "Social Change in Western Towns: El Paso, Texas, 1881-1889" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 1972), 151-76; Marilyn T. Bryan, "The Economic, Political, and Social Status of the Negro in El Paso," Password 13, no. 4 (1968).
119. The Mexican population of El Paso was 53 percent of the population in 1916, 52 percent in 1920. Although black-white racial relations in El Paso never approximated southern patterns of racism, the presence of black troops at Fort Bliss, the local army base, from 1900 to 1906 did destabilize local race relations. The socioeconomic figures are an approximation and were extrapolated from occupational distribution charts of El Paso labor in 1920 based on city directories and statistics from the 1920 U.S. census. See United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census, 6; García, 86, 69; United States Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1920), 2:73, 1036-37, 3:996; United States Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920 (Washington, D.C., 1923), 526. See also Jo Ann Platt Hovious, "Social Change in Western Towns: El Paso, Texas, 1881-1889" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 1972), 151-76; Marilyn T. Bryan, "The Economic, Political, and Social Status of the Negro in El Paso," Password 13, no. 4 (1968).
120. The Mexican population of El Paso was 53 percent of the population in 1916, 52 percent in 1920. Although black-white racial relations in El Paso never approximated southern patterns of racism, the presence of black troops at Fort Bliss, the local army base, from 1900 to 1906 did destabilize local race relations. The socioeconomic figures are an approximation and were extrapolated from occupational distribution charts of El Paso labor in 1920 based on city directories and statistics from the 1920 U.S. census. See United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census, 6; García, 86, 69; United States Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1920), 2:73, 1036-37, 3:996; United States Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920 (Washington, D.C., 1923), 526. See also Jo Ann Platt Hovious, "Social Change in Western Towns: El Paso, Texas, 1881-1889" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 1972), 151-76; Marilyn T. Bryan, "The Economic, Political, and Social Status of the Negro in El Paso," Password 13, no. 4 (1968).
121. The Mexican population of El Paso was 53 percent of the population in 1916, 52 percent in 1920. Although black-white racial relations in El Paso never approximated southern patterns of racism, the presence of black troops at Fort Bliss, the local army base, from 1900 to 1906 did destabilize local race relations. The socioeconomic figures are an approximation and were extrapolated from occupational distribution charts of El Paso labor in 1920 based on city directories and statistics from the 1920 U.S. census. See United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census, 6; García, 86, 69; United States Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1920), 2:73, 1036-37, 3:996; United States Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920 (Washington, D.C., 1923), 526. See also Jo Ann Platt Hovious, "Social Change in Western Towns: El Paso, Texas, 1881-1889" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 1972), 151-76; Marilyn T. Bryan, "The Economic, Political, and Social Status of the Negro in El Paso," Password 13, no. 4 (1968).
122. The Mexican population of El Paso was 53 percent of the population in 1916, 52 percent in 1920. Although black-white racial relations in El Paso never approximated southern patterns of racism, the presence of black troops at Fort Bliss, the local army base, from 1900 to 1906 did destabilize local race relations. The socioeconomic figures are an approximation and were extrapolated from occupational distribution charts of El Paso labor in 1920 based on city directories and statistics from the 1920 U.S. census. See United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census, 6; García, 86, 69; United States Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1920), 2:73, 1036-37, 3:996; United States Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920 (Washington, D.C., 1923), 526. See also Jo Ann Platt Hovious, "Social Change in Western Towns: El Paso, Texas, 1881-1889" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 1972), 151-76; Marilyn T. Bryan, "The Economic, Political, and Social Status of the Negro in El Paso," Password 13, no. 4 (1968).
123. Vowell, 144.
124. White, Out of the Desert, 203-11; George E. Waring, Report on the Social Statistics of Cities, Part II(Washington, D.C., 1887), 761-65; Lawrence H. Larsen, The Urban West at the End of the Frontier (Lawrence, Kans., 1978).
125. White, Out of the Desert, 203-11; George E. Waring, Report on the Social Statistics of Cities, Part II(Washington, D.C., 1887), 761-65; Lawrence H. Larsen, The Urban West at the End of the Frontier (Lawrence, Kans., 1978).
126. White, Out of the Desert, 203-11; George E. Waring, Report on the Social Statistics of Cities, Part II(Washington, D.C., 1887), 761-65; Lawrence H. Larsen, The Urban West at the End of the Frontier (Lawrence, Kans., 1978).
127. El Paso Herald, February 11, 1901, October 10, 1902, April 2, 1903; El Paso Times, November 26, 1901.
128. El Paso Herald, February 11, 1901, October 10, 1902, April 2, 1903; El Paso Times, November 26, 1901.
129. El Paso Herald, October 10, 1902, March 14, 1903, April 2, 1903, November 6, 1904, November 9, 1904, November 10, 1904, November 12, 1904, November 12, 1904, November 14, 1904; Middagh, 102-4; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 29; Lorey, 46. One hundred and fifty prostitutes attended a city council meeting in 1886, while 367 prostitutes were identified during a grand jury investigation in 1913. It is interesting to note that in 1910 only 0.3 percent of the Houston population was identified as prostitutes (239 out of 78,000), while 1 percent of the El Paso population was (367 out of 39,279).
130. El Paso Herald, October 10, 1902, March 14, 1903, April 2, 1903, November 6, 1904, November 9, 1904, November 10, 1904, November 12, 1904, November 12, 1904, November 14, 1904; Middagh, 102-4; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 29; Lorey, 46. One hundred and fifty prostitutes attended a city council meeting in 1886, while 367 prostitutes were identified during a grand jury investigation in 1913. It is interesting to note that in 1910 only 0.3 percent of the Houston population was identified as prostitutes (239 out of 78,000), while 1 percent of the El Paso population was (367 out of 39,279).
131. El Paso Herald, October 10, 1902, March 14, 1903, April 2, 1903, November 6, 1904, November 9, 1904, November 10, 1904, November 12, 1904, November 12, 1904, November 14, 1904; Middagh, 102-4; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 29; Lorey, 46. One hundred and fifty prostitutes attended a city council meeting in 1886, while 367 prostitutes were identified during a grand jury investigation in 1913. It is interesting to note that in 1910 only 0.3 percent of the Houston population was identified as prostitutes (239 out of 78,000), while 1 percent of the El Paso population was (367 out of 39,279).
132. El Paso Herald, October 10, 1902, March 14, 1903, April 2, 1903, November 6, 1904, November 9, 1904, November 10, 1904, November 12, 1904, November 12, 1904, November 14, 1904; Middagh, 102-4; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 29; Lorey, 46. One hundred and fifty prostitutes attended a city council meeting in 1886, while 367 prostitutes were identified during a grand jury investigation in 1913. It is interesting to note that in 1910 only 0.3 percent of the Houston population was identified as prostitutes (239 out of 78,000), while 1 percent of the El Paso population was (367 out of 39,279).
133. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
134. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
135. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
136. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
137. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
138. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
139. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
140. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
141. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
142. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
143. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
144. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented
145. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
146. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
147. El Paso had a civic group, the Committee of Ten, that worked closely with the grand jury to investigate the vice area, but the city did not formally establish a municipal vice commission (as twenty-seven other U.S. cities had done). In his study of prostitution, Woolston found that 72 percent of the red-light districts had been closed due to the efforts of local or state officials, while 28 percent were closed due to the pressure of reform groups. While the Texas Federation of Woman's Clubs took an active antivice reform role in many areas of Texas, there is little extant evidence indicating that the Woman's Club of El Paso participated in these activities on a local level. See Connelly, 195-96; Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 31; Rosen, 14; Woolston, 123; McArthur, 85; Rachell Yarros, "The Secret Plague," Texas Club Woman, February 28, 1914, 3-4; Mary S. Cunningham, The Woman's Club of El Paso: Its First Thirty Years (El Paso, 1978); Stella L. Christian, The History of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (Houston, 1919), 188, 339. See George Jackson Kneeland and New York Committee of Fourteen, The Social Evil in New York City: A Study of Law Enforcement (New York, 1910); Chicago Committee of Nine, Testimony and Addresses on Segregation and Commercialized Vice, presented before the City Council's Committee of Nine (Chicago, 1912); Howard Atwood Kelly, The Influence of Segregation upon Prostitution and upon the Public (Philadelphia, 1912); Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and New York Committee of Fifteen, The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York, 1912); Bigelow et al.; Little Rock Arkansas Vice Commission, Report of the Little Rock Vice Commission, May 20, 1913 (Little Rock, Ark., 1913); Committee of One-hundred; Bureau of Social Hygiene, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City, November 1, 1915: A Comparison between 1912 and 1915 (New York, 1915).
148. Connelly, 103-4.
149. Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, ed., "The Social Evil with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York: A Report Prepared (in 1902) under the Direction of the Committee of Fifteen. Second ed., rev., New York, 1912," in Prostitution in America: Three Investigations, 1902-1914 (New York, 1976), 5-7; Tessa L. Kelso, Clause 79, Report to Committee of Woman's Municipal League of the City of New York (1911), 16; Francis Bjorkman Maule, Why Women Want the Vote (New York, 1912), 9; Annie Gertrude (Webb) Porritt, The Political Duties of Mothers (Hartford, Conn., 1912); Kelly, 1.
150. Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, ed., "The Social Evil with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York: A Report Prepared (in 1902) under the Direction of the Committee of Fifteen. Second ed., rev., New York, 1912," in Prostitution in America: Three Investigations, 1902-1914 (New York, 1976), 5-7; Tessa L. Kelso, Clause 79, Report to Committee of Woman's Municipal League of the City of New York (1911), 16; Francis Bjorkman Maule, Why Women Want the Vote (New York, 1912), 9; Annie Gertrude (Webb) Porritt, The Political Duties of Mothers (Hartford, Conn., 1912); Kelly, 1.
151. Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, ed., "The Social Evil with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York: A Report Prepared (in 1902) under the Direction of the Committee of Fifteen. Second ed., rev., New York, 1912," in Prostitution in America: Three Investigations, 1902-1914 (New York, 1976), 5-7; Tessa L. Kelso, Clause 79, Report to Committee of Woman's Municipal League of the City of New York (1911), 16; Francis Bjorkman Maule, Why Women Want the Vote (New York, 1912), 9; Annie Gertrude (Webb) Porritt, The Political Duties of Mothers (Hartford, Conn., 1912); Kelly, 1.
152. Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, ed., "The Social Evil with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York: A Report Prepared (in 1902) under the Direction of the Committee of Fifteen. Second ed., rev., New York, 1912," in Prostitution in America: Three Investigations, 1902-1914 (New York, 1976), 5-7; Tessa L. Kelso, Clause 79, Report to Committee of Woman's Municipal League of the City of New York (1911), 16; Francis Bjorkman Maule, Why Women Want the Vote (New York, 1912), 9; Annie Gertrude (Webb) Porritt, The Political Duties of Mothers (Hartford, Conn., 1912); Kelly, 1.
153. Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, ed., "The Social Evil with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York: A Report Prepared (in 1902) under the Direction of the Committee of Fifteen. Second ed., rev., New York, 1912," in Prostitution in America: Three Investigations, 1902-1914 (New York, 1976), 5-7; Tessa L. Kelso, Clause 79, Report to Committee of Woman's Municipal League of the City of New York (1911), 16; Francis Bjorkman Maule, Why Women Want the Vote (New York, 1912), 9; Annie Gertrude (Webb) Porritt, The Political Duties of Mothers (Hartford, Conn., 1912); Kelly, 1.
154. Chicago Committee of Nine, 3; Kelso, 16. Studies in 1910 placed the annual profit from prostitution in Chicago at $7 million per year. Connelly, 100. See Mara L. Keire, "The Vice Trust: A Reinterpretation of the White Slavery Scare in the United States, 1907-1917," Journal of Social History 35, no. 1 (2001): 5-41.
155. Chicago Committee of Nine, 3; Kelso, 16. Studies in 1910 placed the annual profit from prostitution in Chicago at $7 million per year. Connelly, 100. See Mara L. Keire, "The Vice Trust: A Reinterpretation of the White Slavery Scare in the United States, 1907-1917," Journal of Social History 35, no. 1 (2001): 5-41.
156. Chicago Committee of Nine, 3; Kelso, 16. Studies in 1910 placed the annual profit from prostitution in Chicago at $7 million per year. Connelly, 100. See Mara L. Keire, "The Vice Trust: A Reinterpretation of the White Slavery Scare in the United States, 1907-1917," Journal of Social History 35, no. 1 (2001): 5-41.
157. Chicago Committee of Nine, 3; Kelso, 16. Studies in 1910 placed the annual profit from prostitution in Chicago at $7 million per year. Connelly, 100. See Mara L. Keire, "The Vice Trust: A Reinterpretation of the White Slavery Scare in the United States, 1907-1917," Journal of Social History 35, no. 1 (2001): 5-41.
158. One immigration "expert" stated that the white slave traffic has "materially heightened the gross evils of prostitution. Unnatural practices are brought largely from continental Europe; the fiendish work of the procurers and pimps is largely done by aliens or immigrants; diseases are spread more widely[;] . . . even the ancient vice of the use of men and boys for immoral purposes is coming from abroad." See Jeremiah Whipple Jenks and W. Jett Lauck, The Immigration Problem: A Study of American Immigration Conditions and Needs, 3rd ed. (New York, 1913), 66-67. Interestingly enough, although the regulations for inspection of aliens included physical exams for the lesions of syphilis, by 1917 the certification for debarment required two positive Wassermann reactions separated by at least two days to assure that there were no false positives. United States Public Health Service, Regulations Governing the Medical Inspection of Aliens (Washington, D.C., 1917), 33, 37.
159. One immigration "expert" stated that the white slave traffic has "materially heightened the gross evils of prostitution. Unnatural practices are brought largely from continental Europe; the fiendish work of the procurers and pimps is largely done by aliens or immigrants; diseases are spread more widely[;] . . . even the ancient vice of the use of men and boys for immoral purposes is coming from abroad." See Jeremiah Whipple Jenks and W. Jett Lauck, The Immigration Problem: A Study of American Immigration Conditions and Needs, 3rd ed. (New York, 1913), 66-67. Interestingly enough, although the regulations for inspection of aliens included physical exams for the lesions of syphilis, by 1917 the certification for debarment required two positive Wassermann reactions separated by at least two days to assure that there were no false positives. United States Public Health Service, Regulations Governing the Medical Inspection of Aliens (Washington, D.C., 1917), 33, 37.
160. A. F. Niemoeller, Sexual Slavery in America (New York, 1935), 125. Although many historians deny the existence of white slavery except as a Progressive Era myth, Rosen believes that approximately 10 percent of prostitutes during the period were coerced into prostitution (112-18, 133-34). Margit Stange, Frederick Grittner, and Mark Connelly believe that it was a myth fed by mass hysteria. See Margit Stange, Personal Property: Wives, White Slaves, and the Market in Women (Baltimore, Md., 1998); Frederick K. Grittner, White Slavery: Myth, Ideology, and American Law (New York, 1990); Connelly. See also Rockefeller Grand Jury, "Presentment of the Rockefeller Grand Jury, June 29, 1910," in A. F. Niemoeller, ed., Sexual Slavery in America (New York, 1935); Clifford Griffin Roe, What Women Might Do with the Ballot: The Abolition of the White Slave Traffic (New York, 1912); National American Woman Suffrage Association, The Revolution in Women's Work Makes Votes for Women a Practical Necessity (New York, 1912).
161. A. F. Niemoeller, Sexual Slavery in America (New York, 1935), 125. Although many historians deny the existence of white slavery except as a Progressive Era myth, Rosen believes that approximately 10 percent of prostitutes during the period were coerced into prostitution (112-18, 133-34). Margit Stange, Frederick Grittner, and Mark Connelly believe that it was a myth fed by mass hysteria. See Margit Stange, Personal Property: Wives, White Slaves, and the Market in Women (Baltimore, Md., 1998); Frederick K. Grittner, White Slavery: Myth, Ideology, and American Law (New York, 1990); Connelly. See also Rockefeller Grand Jury, "Presentment of the Rockefeller Grand Jury, June 29, 1910," in A. F. Niemoeller, ed., Sexual Slavery in America (New York, 1935); Clifford Griffin Roe, What Women Might Do with the Ballot: The Abolition of the White Slave Traffic (New York, 1912); National American Woman Suffrage Association, The Revolution in Women's Work Makes Votes for Women a Practical Necessity (New York, 1912).
162. A. F. Niemoeller, Sexual Slavery in America (New York, 1935), 125. Although many historians deny the existence of white slavery except as a Progressive Era myth, Rosen believes that approximately 10 percent of prostitutes during the period were coerced into prostitution (112-18, 133-34). Margit Stange, Frederick Grittner, and Mark Connelly believe that it was a myth fed by mass hysteria. See Margit Stange, Personal Property: Wives, White Slaves, and the Market in Women (Baltimore, Md., 1998); Frederick K. Grittner, White Slavery: Myth, Ideology, and American Law (New York, 1990); Connelly. See also Rockefeller Grand Jury, "Presentment of the Rockefeller Grand Jury, June 29, 1910," in A. F. Niemoeller, ed., Sexual Slavery in America (New York, 1935); Clifford Griffin Roe, What Women Might Do with the Ballot: The Abolition of the White Slave Traffic (New York, 1912); National American Woman Suffrage Association, The Revolution in Women's Work Makes Votes for Women a Practical Necessity (New York, 1912).
163. A. F. Niemoeller, Sexual Slavery in America (New York, 1935), 125. Although many historians deny the existence of white slavery except as a Progressive Era myth, Rosen believes that approximately 10 percent of prostitutes during the period were coerced into prostitution (112-18, 133-34). Margit Stange, Frederick Grittner, and Mark Connelly believe that it was a myth fed by mass hysteria. See Margit Stange, Personal Property: Wives, White Slaves, and the Market in Women (Baltimore, Md., 1998); Frederick K. Grittner, White Slavery: Myth, Ideology, and American Law (New York, 1990); Connelly. See also Rockefeller Grand Jury, "Presentment of the Rockefeller Grand Jury, June 29, 1910," in A. F. Niemoeller, ed., Sexual Slavery in America (New York, 1935); Clifford Griffin Roe, What Women Might Do with the Ballot: The Abolition of the White Slave Traffic (New York, 1912); National American Woman Suffrage Association, The Revolution in Women's Work Makes Votes for Women a Practical Necessity (New York, 1912).
164. A. F. Niemoeller, Sexual Slavery in America (New York, 1935), 125. Although many historians deny the existence of white slavery except as a Progressive Era myth, Rosen believes that approximately 10 percent of prostitutes during the period were coerced into prostitution (112-18, 133-34). Margit Stange, Frederick Grittner, and Mark Connelly believe that it was a myth fed by mass hysteria. See Margit Stange, Personal Property: Wives, White Slaves, and the Market in Women (Baltimore, Md., 1998); Frederick K. Grittner, White Slavery: Myth, Ideology, and American Law (New York, 1990); Connelly. See also Rockefeller Grand Jury, "Presentment of the Rockefeller Grand Jury, June 29, 1910," in A. F. Niemoeller, ed., Sexual Slavery in America (New York, 1935); Clifford Griffin Roe, What Women Might Do with the Ballot: The Abolition of the White Slave Traffic (New York, 1912); National American Woman Suffrage Association, The Revolution in Women's Work Makes Votes for Women a Practical Necessity (New York, 1912).
165. A. F. Niemoeller, Sexual Slavery in America (New York, 1935), 125. Although many historians deny the existence of white slavery except as a Progressive Era myth, Rosen believes that approximately 10 percent of prostitutes during the period were coerced into prostitution (112-18, 133-34). Margit Stange, Frederick Grittner, and Mark Connelly believe that it was a myth fed by mass hysteria. See Margit Stange, Personal Property: Wives, White Slaves, and the Market in Women (Baltimore, Md., 1998); Frederick K. Grittner, White Slavery: Myth, Ideology, and American Law (New York, 1990); Connelly. See also Rockefeller Grand Jury, "Presentment of the Rockefeller Grand Jury, June 29, 1910," in A. F. Niemoeller, ed., Sexual Slavery in America (New York, 1935); Clifford Griffin Roe, What Women Might Do with the Ballot: The Abolition of the White Slave Traffic (New York, 1912); National American Woman Suffrage Association, The Revolution in Women's Work Makes Votes for Women a Practical Necessity (New York, 1912).
166. Grittner, 8-9, 30, 132-33.
167. Stange, 2-5, 77-78, 90-92; Katrina Irving, Immigrant Mothers: Narratives of Race and Maternity, 1890-1925 (Urbana, Ill., 2000), 36, 42-43, 49. See also George L. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality: Middle-Class Morality and Sexual Norms in Modern Europe (Madison, Wis., 1985), 134.
168. Stange, 2-5, 77-78, 90-92; Katrina Irving, Immigrant Mothers: Narratives of Race and Maternity, 1890-1925 (Urbana, Ill., 2000), 36, 42-43, 49. See also George L. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality: Middle-Class Morality and Sexual Norms in Modern Europe (Madison, Wis., 1985), 134.
169. Stange, 2-5, 77-78, 90-92; Katrina Irving, Immigrant Mothers: Narratives of Race and Maternity, 1890-1925 (Urbana, Ill., 2000), 36, 42-43, 49. See also George L. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality: Middle-Class Morality and Sexual Norms in Modern Europe (Madison, Wis., 1985), 134.
170. United States Immigration Commission, Importation and Harboring of Women for Immoral Purposes, 61st Cong., 3rd sess., document 753 (Washington, D.C., 1911), 62, 64-65; Jenks and Lauck, 65; Hobson, 145-46; F. R. Stone to Commissioner- General of Immigration, May 8, 1909, November 2, 1909, case file 52484/8, Record Group 85, Microfilm Records, Series A: Subject Correspondence Files, Part 5: Prostitution and "White Slavery," 1902-33 (hereafter RG 85); Sanger, 460; Katharine Bement Davis, "A Study of Prostitutes Committed from New York City to the State Reformatory for Women at Bedford Hills," in George Jackson Kneeland and Katharine Bement Davis, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City (New York, 1913; reprint, Montclair, N.J., 1969), 173, 177.
171. United States Immigration Commission, Importation and Harboring of Women for Immoral Purposes, 61st Cong., 3rd sess., document 753 (Washington, D.C., 1911), 62, 64-65; Jenks and Lauck, 65; Hobson, 145-46; F. R. Stone to Commissioner- General of Immigration, May 8, 1909, November 2, 1909, case file 52484/8, Record Group 85, Microfilm Records, Series A: Subject Correspondence Files, Part 5: Prostitution and "White Slavery," 1902-33 (hereafter RG 85); Sanger, 460; Katharine Bement Davis, "A Study of Prostitutes Committed from New York City to the State Reformatory for Women at Bedford Hills," in George Jackson Kneeland and Katharine Bement Davis, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City (New York, 1913; reprint, Montclair, N.J., 1969), 173, 177.
172. United States Immigration Commission, Importation and Harboring of Women for Immoral Purposes, 61st Cong., 3rd sess., document 753 (Washington, D.C., 1911), 62, 64-65; Jenks and Lauck, 65; Hobson, 145-46; F. R. Stone to Commissioner- General of Immigration, May 8, 1909, November 2, 1909, case file 52484/8, Record Group 85, Microfilm Records, Series A: Subject Correspondence Files, Part 5: Prostitution and "White Slavery," 1902-33 (hereafter RG 85); Sanger, 460; Katharine Bement Davis, "A Study of Prostitutes Committed from New York City to the State Reformatory for Women at Bedford Hills," in George Jackson Kneeland and Katharine Bement Davis, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City (New York, 1913; reprint, Montclair, N.J., 1969), 173, 177.
173. United States Immigration Commission, Importation and Harboring of Women for Immoral Purposes, 61st Cong., 3rd sess., document 753 (Washington, D.C., 1911), 62, 64-65; Jenks and Lauck, 65; Hobson, 145-46; F. R. Stone to Commissioner- General of Immigration, May 8, 1909, November 2, 1909, case file 52484/8, Record Group 85, Microfilm Records, Series A: Subject Correspondence Files, Part 5: Prostitution and "White Slavery," 1902-33 (hereafter RG 85); Sanger, 460; Katharine Bement Davis, "A Study of Prostitutes Committed from New York City to the State Reformatory for Women at Bedford Hills," in George Jackson Kneeland and Katharine Bement Davis, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City (New York, 1913; reprint, Montclair, N.J., 1969), 173, 177.
174. United States Immigration Commission, Importation and Harboring of Women for Immoral Purposes, 61st Cong., 3rd sess., document 753 (Washington, D.C., 1911), 62, 64-65; Jenks and Lauck, 65; Hobson, 145-46; F. R. Stone to Commissioner- General of Immigration, May 8, 1909, November 2, 1909, case file 52484/8, Record Group 85, Microfilm Records, Series A: Subject Correspondence Files, Part 5: Prostitution and "White Slavery," 1902-33 (hereafter RG 85); Sanger, 460; Katharine Bement Davis, "A Study of Prostitutes Committed from New York City to the State Reformatory for Women at Bedford Hills," in George Jackson Kneeland and Katharine Bement Davis, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City (New York, 1913; reprint, Montclair, N.J., 1969), 173, 177.
175. United States Immigration Commission, Importation and Harboring of Women for Immoral Purposes, 61st Cong., 3rd sess., document 753 (Washington, D.C., 1911), 62, 64-65; Jenks and Lauck, 65; Hobson, 145-46; F. R. Stone to Commissioner- General of Immigration, May 8, 1909, November 2, 1909, case file 52484/8, Record Group 85, Microfilm Records, Series A: Subject Correspondence Files, Part 5: Prostitution and "White Slavery," 1902-33 (hereafter RG 85); Sanger, 460; Katharine Bement Davis, "A Study of Prostitutes Committed from New York City to the State Reformatory for Women at Bedford Hills," in George Jackson Kneeland and Katharine Bement Davis, Commercialized Prostitution in New York City (New York, 1913; reprint, Montclair, N.J., 1969), 173, 177.
176. United States Bureau of the Census, Twelfth Census of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1900), Texas, Population Schedules, El Paso, enumeration district 19, sheet numbers 21A, 21B, 22, 25, 30; Stone to Commissioner-General of Immigration, November 2, 1909.
177. United States Immigration Commission, 62; Jenks and Lauck, 65; Woolston, 14, 45.
178. United States Immigration Commission, 62; Jenks and Lauck, 65; Woolston, 14, 45.
179. United States Immigration Commission, 62; Jenks and Lauck, 65; Woolston, 14, 45.
180. Abdul R. JanMohamed, "Sexuality on/of the Racial Border: Foucault, Wright and the Articulation of 'Racialized Sexuality,'" in Domna C. Stanton, ed., Discourses of Sexuality: from Aristotle to AIDS (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1992), 94, 97; United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census; El Paso Daily Times, October 10, 1893; Keire, "Vice in American Cities," 102-3; El Paso Herald, February 17, 1900; Garna L. Christian, Black Soldiers in Jim Crow Texas, 1899-1917(College Station, Tex., 1995), 6-7, 40, 46-64, 92- 96, 120-21; W. H. Timmons, El Paso, a Borderland History (El Paso, Tex., 1900), 188-89; Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528-1995 (Norman, Okla., 1996), 82-83, 141; Frost, 54, 156; James A. Sandos, "Prostitution and Drugs: The United States Army on the Mexican-American Border, 1916-1917," Pacific Historical Review 44, no. 4 (1980): 632-33. See Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86, no. 1 (1999): 88-90; Ian F. Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996).
181. Abdul R. JanMohamed, "Sexuality on/of the Racial Border: Foucault, Wright and the Articulation of 'Racialized Sexuality,'" in Domna C. Stanton, ed., Discourses of Sexuality: from Aristotle to AIDS (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1992), 94, 97; United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census; El Paso Daily Times, October 10, 1893; Keire, "Vice in American Cities," 102-3; El Paso Herald, February 17, 1900; Garna L. Christian, Black Soldiers in Jim Crow Texas, 1899-1917(College Station, Tex., 1995), 6-7, 40, 46-64, 92- 96, 120-21; W. H. Timmons, El Paso, a Borderland History (El Paso, Tex., 1900), 188-89; Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528-1995 (Norman, Okla., 1996), 82-83, 141; Frost, 54, 156; James A. Sandos, "Prostitution and Drugs: The United States Army on the Mexican-American Border, 1916-1917," Pacific Historical Review 44, no. 4 (1980): 632-33. See Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86, no. 1 (1999): 88-90; Ian F. Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996).
182. Abdul R. JanMohamed, "Sexuality on/of the Racial Border: Foucault, Wright and the Articulation of 'Racialized Sexuality,'" in Domna C. Stanton, ed., Discourses of Sexuality: from Aristotle to AIDS (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1992), 94, 97; United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census; El Paso Daily Times, October 10, 1893; Keire, "Vice in American Cities," 102-3; El Paso Herald, February 17, 1900; Garna L. Christian, Black Soldiers in Jim Crow Texas, 1899-1917(College Station, Tex., 1995), 6-7, 40, 46-64, 92- 96, 120-21; W. H. Timmons, El Paso, a Borderland History (El Paso, Tex., 1900), 188-89; Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528-1995 (Norman, Okla., 1996), 82-83, 141; Frost, 54, 156; James A. Sandos, "Prostitution and Drugs: The United States Army on the Mexican-American Border, 1916-1917," Pacific Historical Review 44, no. 4 (1980): 632-33. See Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86, no. 1 (1999): 88-90; Ian F. Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996).
183. Abdul R. JanMohamed, "Sexuality on/of the Racial Border: Foucault, Wright and the Articulation of 'Racialized Sexuality,'" in Domna C. Stanton, ed., Discourses of Sexuality: from Aristotle to AIDS (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1992), 94, 97; United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census; El Paso Daily Times, October 10, 1893; Keire, "Vice in American Cities," 102-3; El Paso Herald, February 17, 1900; Garna L. Christian, Black Soldiers in Jim Crow Texas, 1899-1917(College Station, Tex., 1995), 6-7, 40, 46-64, 92- 96, 120-21; W. H. Timmons, El Paso, a Borderland History (El Paso, Tex., 1900), 188-89; Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528-1995 (Norman, Okla., 1996), 82-83, 141; Frost, 54, 156; James A. Sandos, "Prostitution and Drugs: The United States Army on the Mexican-American Border, 1916-1917," Pacific Historical Review 44, no. 4 (1980): 632-33. See Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86, no. 1 (1999): 88-90; Ian F. Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996).
184. Abdul R. JanMohamed, "Sexuality on/of the Racial Border: Foucault, Wright and the Articulation of 'Racialized Sexuality,'" in Domna C. Stanton, ed., Discourses of Sexuality: from Aristotle to AIDS (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1992), 94, 97; United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census; El Paso Daily Times, October 10, 1893; Keire, "Vice in American Cities," 102-3; El Paso Herald, February 17, 1900; Garna L. Christian, Black Soldiers in Jim Crow Texas, 1899-1917(College Station, Tex., 1995), 6-7, 40, 46-64, 92- 96, 120-21; W. H. Timmons, El Paso, a Borderland History (El Paso, Tex., 1900), 188-89; Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528-1995 (Norman, Okla., 1996), 82-83, 141; Frost, 54, 156; James A. Sandos, "Prostitution and Drugs: The United States Army on the Mexican-American Border, 1916-1917," Pacific Historical Review 44, no. 4 (1980): 632-33. See Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86, no. 1 (1999): 88-90; Ian F. Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996).
185. Abdul R. JanMohamed, "Sexuality on/of the Racial Border: Foucault, Wright and the Articulation of 'Racialized Sexuality,'" in Domna C. Stanton, ed., Discourses of Sexuality: from Aristotle to AIDS (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1992), 94, 97; United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census; El Paso Daily Times, October 10, 1893; Keire, "Vice in American Cities," 102-3; El Paso Herald, February 17, 1900; Garna L. Christian, Black Soldiers in Jim Crow Texas, 1899-1917(College Station, Tex., 1995), 6-7, 40, 46-64, 92- 96, 120-21; W. H. Timmons, El Paso, a Borderland History (El Paso, Tex., 1900), 188-89; Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528-1995 (Norman, Okla., 1996), 82-83, 141; Frost, 54, 156; James A. Sandos, "Prostitution and Drugs: The United States Army on the Mexican-American Border, 1916-1917," Pacific Historical Review 44, no. 4 (1980): 632-33. See Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86, no. 1 (1999): 88-90; Ian F. Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996).
186. Abdul R. JanMohamed, "Sexuality on/of the Racial Border: Foucault, Wright and the Articulation of 'Racialized Sexuality,'" in Domna C. Stanton, ed., Discourses of Sexuality: from Aristotle to AIDS (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1992), 94, 97; United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census; El Paso Daily Times, October 10, 1893; Keire, "Vice in American Cities," 102-3; El Paso Herald, February 17, 1900; Garna L. Christian, Black Soldiers in Jim Crow Texas, 1899-1917(College Station, Tex., 1995), 6-7, 40, 46-64, 92- 96, 120-21; W. H. Timmons, El Paso, a Borderland History (El Paso, Tex., 1900), 188-89; Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528-1995 (Norman, Okla., 1996), 82-83, 141; Frost, 54, 156; James A. Sandos, "Prostitution and Drugs: The United States Army on the Mexican-American Border, 1916-1917," Pacific Historical Review 44, no. 4 (1980): 632-33. See Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86, no. 1 (1999): 88-90; Ian F. Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996).
187. Abdul R. JanMohamed, "Sexuality on/of the Racial Border: Foucault, Wright and the Articulation of 'Racialized Sexuality,'" in Domna C. Stanton, ed., Discourses of Sexuality: from Aristotle to AIDS (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1992), 94, 97; United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census; El Paso Daily Times, October 10, 1893; Keire, "Vice in American Cities," 102-3; El Paso Herald, February 17, 1900; Garna L. Christian, Black Soldiers in Jim Crow Texas, 1899-1917(College Station, Tex., 1995), 6-7, 40, 46-64, 92- 96, 120-21; W. H. Timmons, El Paso, a Borderland History (El Paso, Tex., 1900), 188-89; Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528-1995 (Norman, Okla., 1996), 82-83, 141; Frost, 54, 156; James A. Sandos, "Prostitution and Drugs: The United States Army on the Mexican-American Border, 1916-1917," Pacific Historical Review 44, no. 4 (1980): 632-33. See Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86, no. 1 (1999): 88-90; Ian F. Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996).
188. Abdul R. JanMohamed, "Sexuality on/of the Racial Border: Foucault, Wright and the Articulation of 'Racialized Sexuality,'" in Domna C. Stanton, ed., Discourses of Sexuality: from Aristotle to AIDS (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1992), 94, 97; United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census; El Paso Daily Times, October 10, 1893; Keire, "Vice in American Cities," 102-3; El Paso Herald, February 17, 1900; Garna L. Christian, Black Soldiers in Jim Crow Texas, 1899-1917(College Station, Tex., 1995), 6-7, 40, 46-64, 92- 96, 120-21; W. H. Timmons, El Paso, a Borderland History (El Paso, Tex., 1900), 188-89; Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528-1995 (Norman, Okla., 1996), 82-83, 141; Frost, 54, 156; James A. Sandos, "Prostitution and Drugs: The United States Army on the Mexican-American Border, 1916-1917," Pacific Historical Review 44, no. 4 (1980): 632-33. See Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86, no. 1 (1999): 88-90; Ian F. Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996).
189. Abdul R. JanMohamed, "Sexuality on/of the Racial Border: Foucault, Wright and the Articulation of 'Racialized Sexuality,'" in Domna C. Stanton, ed., Discourses of Sexuality: from Aristotle to AIDS (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1992), 94, 97; United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census; El Paso Daily Times, October 10, 1893; Keire, "Vice in American Cities," 102-3; El Paso Herald, February 17, 1900; Garna L. Christian, Black Soldiers in Jim Crow Texas, 1899-1917(College Station, Tex., 1995), 6-7, 40, 46-64, 92- 96, 120-21; W. H. Timmons, El Paso, a Borderland History (El Paso, Tex., 1900), 188-89; Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528-1995 (Norman, Okla., 1996), 82-83, 141; Frost, 54, 156; James A. Sandos, "Prostitution and Drugs: The United States Army on the Mexican-American Border, 1916-1917," Pacific Historical Review 44, no. 4 (1980): 632-33. See Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86, no. 1 (1999): 88-90; Ian F. Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996).
190. Abdul R. JanMohamed, "Sexuality on/of the Racial Border: Foucault, Wright and the Articulation of 'Racialized Sexuality,'" in Domna C. Stanton, ed., Discourses of Sexuality: from Aristotle to AIDS (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1992), 94, 97; United States Bureau of the Census, Special Census; El Paso Daily Times, October 10, 1893; Keire, "Vice in American Cities," 102-3; El Paso Herald, February 17, 1900; Garna L. Christian, Black Soldiers in Jim Crow Texas, 1899-1917(College Station, Tex., 1995), 6-7, 40, 46-64, 92- 96, 120-21; W. H. Timmons, El Paso, a Borderland History (El Paso, Tex., 1900), 188-89; Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528-1995 (Norman, Okla., 1996), 82-83, 141; Frost, 54, 156; James A. Sandos, "Prostitution and Drugs: The United States Army on the Mexican-American Border, 1916-1917," Pacific Historical Review 44, no. 4 (1980): 632-33. See Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86, no. 1 (1999): 88-90; Ian F. Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996).
191. Edna S. Haines, "John Selman of El Paso, as told by my father, John Selman Jr.," n.d., 109-10, 1861-1971, MS 109, Selman Family Papers, C. L. Sonnichsen Special Collections Department, University of Texas at El Paso Library; El Paso Times, June 22, 1890, quoted in Sonnichsen, 284. See John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York, 1988), 87-93.
192. Edna S. Haines, "John Selman of El Paso, as told by my father, John Selman Jr.," n.d., 109-10, 1861-1971, MS 109, Selman Family Papers, C. L. Sonnichsen Special Collections Department, University of Texas at El Paso Library; El Paso Times, June 22, 1890, quoted in Sonnichsen, 284. See John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York, 1988), 87-93.
193. F. R. Stone to Commissioner-General of Immigration, June 25, 1909, case file 52484/8-A, RG 85.
194. Frost, 204.
195. El Paso Hervald, February 1, 1913, March 7, 1913; García, 76-78; Woolston, 67; Kneeland and Davis, 126-27; Moral Survey Committee of Syracuse, "The Social Evil in Syracuse: Being the Report of an Investigation of the Moral Condition of the City Conducted by a Committee of Eighteen Citizens. Syracuse, N.Y., 1913," in Prostitution in America, 20-26, 96.
196. El Paso Hervald, February 1, 1913, March 7, 1913; García, 76-78; Woolston, 67; Kneeland and Davis, 126-27; Moral Survey Committee of Syracuse, "The Social Evil in Syracuse: Being the Report of an Investigation of the Moral Condition of the City Conducted by a Committee of Eighteen Citizens. Syracuse, N.Y., 1913," in Prostitution in America, 20-26, 96.
197. El Paso Hervald, February 1, 1913, March 7, 1913; García, 76-78; Woolston, 67; Kneeland and Davis, 126-27; Moral Survey Committee of Syracuse, "The Social Evil in Syracuse: Being the Report of an Investigation of the Moral Condition of the City Conducted by a Committee of Eighteen Citizens. Syracuse, N.Y., 1913," in Prostitution in America, 20-26, 96.
198. El Paso Hervald, February 1, 1913, March 7, 1913; García, 76-78; Woolston, 67; Kneeland and Davis, 126-27; Moral Survey Committee of Syracuse, "The Social Evil in Syracuse: Being the Report of an Investigation of the Moral Condition of the City Conducted by a Committee of Eighteen Citizens. Syracuse, N.Y., 1913," in Prostitution in America, 20-26, 96.
199. El Paso Hervald, February 1, 1913, March 7, 1913; García, 76-78; Woolston, 67; Kneeland and Davis, 126-27; Moral Survey Committee of Syracuse, "The Social Evil in Syracuse: Being the Report of an Investigation of the Moral Condition of the City Conducted by a Committee of Eighteen Citizens. Syracuse, N.Y., 1913," in Prostitution in America, 20-26, 96.
200. "Report of the Commission for the Investigation of the White Slave Traffic, So Called (Reprinted from [Massachusetts] House [Document] No. 2281, February, 1914), Boston, 1914," in Prostitution in America, 42-43; Woolston, 58; Robert Mearns Yerkes, Psychological Examining in the United States Army (Washington, D.C., 1921), 807- 11.
201. "Report of the Commission for the Investigation of the White Slave Traffic, So Called (Reprinted from [Massachusetts] House [Document] No. 2281, February, 1914), Boston, 1914," in Prostitution in America, 42-43; Woolston, 58; Robert Mearns Yerkes, Psychological Examining in the United States Army (Washington, D.C., 1921), 807- 11.
202. "Report of the Commission for the Investigation of the White Slave Traffic, So Called (Reprinted from [Massachusetts] House [Document] No. 2281, February, 1914), Boston, 1914," in Prostitution in America, 42-43; Woolston, 58; Robert Mearns Yerkes, Psychological Examining in the United States Army (Washington, D.C., 1921), 807- 11.
203. Florida State Federation of Women's Clubs, 1913, quoted in Edward J. Larson, Sex, Race, and Science: Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore, Md., 1996), 3. See also United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual for the Various Agents of the United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board (Washington, D.C., 1920), 23; Kneeland and Davis, 183; undated letter on "defective children" in Texas, box 1, file 16, Critchett (Belle Christie) Papers, C. L. Sonnichsen Special Collections Department; Edith Rogers Spaulding, Mental and Physical Factors in Prostitution (1914).
204. Florida State Federation of Women's Clubs, 1913, quoted in Edward J. Larson, Sex, Race, and Science: Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore, Md., 1996), 3. See also United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual for the Various Agents of the United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board (Washington, D.C., 1920), 23; Kneeland and Davis, 183; undated letter on "defective children" in Texas, box 1, file 16, Critchett (Belle Christie) Papers, C. L. Sonnichsen Special Collections Department; Edith Rogers Spaulding, Mental and Physical Factors in Prostitution (1914).
205. Florida State Federation of Women's Clubs, 1913, quoted in Edward J. Larson, Sex, Race, and Science: Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore, Md., 1996), 3. See also United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual for the Various Agents of the United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board (Washington, D.C., 1920), 23; Kneeland and Davis, 183; undated letter on "defective children" in Texas, box 1, file 16, Critchett (Belle Christie) Papers, C. L. Sonnichsen Special Collections Department; Edith Rogers Spaulding, Mental and Physical Factors in Prostitution (1914).
206. Florida State Federation of Women's Clubs, 1913, quoted in Edward J. Larson, Sex, Race, and Science: Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore, Md., 1996), 3. See also United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual for the Various Agents of the United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board (Washington, D.C., 1920), 23; Kneeland and Davis, 183; undated letter on "defective children" in Texas, box 1, file 16, Critchett (Belle Christie) Papers, C. L. Sonnichsen Special Collections Department; Edith Rogers Spaulding, Mental and Physical Factors in Prostitution (1914).
207. Rosen, 21; Woolston, 58, 230-31; Connelly, 44.
208. Rosen, 21; Woolston, 58, 230-31; Connelly, 44.
209. Rosen, 21; Woolston, 58, 230-31; Connelly, 44.
210. Frost, 174-80; Sonnichsen, 375-76.
211. Frost, 174-80; Sonnichsen, 375-76.
212. El Paso Herald, March 7, 1913, March 8, 1913, March 10, 1913, March 15, 1913. I am, of course, borrowing Benedict Anderson's useful term from Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (New York, 1991), 6, 33.
213. El Paso Herald, March 7, 1913, March 8, 1913, March 10, 1913, March 15, 1913. I am, of course, borrowing Benedict Anderson's useful term from Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (New York, 1991), 6, 33.
214. "Report of Actions of the Inmates on Broadway, between E. Overland and E. Second Sts., Monday, July 25, 1912," "Grand Jury Report, Subject: Violations of Sunday Closing Law, March 16, 1913," "Grand Jury Report: Restricted District, 3/28/13- 4/8/13," 1861-1991, box 101, folder 473, C. L. Sonnichsen Papers, C. L. Sonnichsen Special Collections Department.
215. El Paso Herald, March 7, 1913, March 13, 1913; Frost, 178.
216. El Paso Herald, March 7, 1913, March 13, 1913; Frost, 178.
217. El Paso Herald, March 11, 1913, March 28, 1913; "Grand Jury Report: Restricted District, 3/28/13-4/8/13."
218. El Paso Herald, March 11, 1913, March 28, 1913; "Grand Jury Report: Restricted District, 3/28/13-4/8/13."
219. El Paso Herald, March 11, 1913, March 28, 1913; S. L. A. Marshall, "Oral Interview," ed. Richard Estrada, 1975, 19-20, Institute of Oral History, University of Texas at El Paso.
220. El Paso Herald, March 11, 1913, March 28, 1913; S. L. A. Marshall, "Oral Interview," ed. Richard Estrada, 1975, 19-20, Institute of Oral History, University of Texas at El Paso.
221. "Grand Jury Report: Restricted District, 3/28/13-4/8/13."
222. El Paso Herald, March 29, 1913.
223. El Paso Herald, March 28, 1913, April 2, 1913, April 4, 1913, April 5, 1913; "Grand Jury Report: Restricted District, 3/28/13-4/8/13."
224. El Paso Herald, March 28, 1913, April 2, 1913, April 4, 1913, April 5, 1913; "Grand Jury Report: Restricted District, 3/28/13-4/8/13."
225. Frost, 179-81, 186.
226. Exhibit of rules for El Paso prostitutes, Woolston, 337.
227. Frost, 182-83; El Paso Herald, July 19, 1913.
228. Frost, 182-83; El Paso Herald, July 19, 1913.
229. El Paso Herald, September 10, 1913.
230. El Paso Herald, December 8, 1915, February 16, 1916, February 29, 1916, March 1, 1916, March 2, 1916, March 3, 1916; El Paso Times, January 13, 1916; Frost, 189-91.
231. El Paso Herald, December 8, 1915, February 16, 1916, February 29, 1916, March 1, 1916, March 2, 1916, March 3, 1916; El Paso Times, January 13, 1916; Frost, 189-91.
232. El Paso Herald, December 8, 1915, February 16, 1916, February 29, 1916, March 1, 1916, March 2, 1916, March 3, 1916; El Paso Times, January 13, 1916; Frost, 189-91.
233. El Paso Herald, June 22, 1916, June 23, 1916; "List of Prostitutes in Foreign Contiguous Territory," case file 52484/23, RG 85; Bulletin (El Paso County Medical Society), 1909-16; Southwestern Medicine (Medical and Surgical Association of the Southwest), 1917-19.
234. El Paso Herald, June 22, 1916, June 23, 1916; "List of Prostitutes in Foreign Contiguous Territory," case file 52484/23, RG 85; Bulletin (El Paso County Medical Society), 1909-16; Southwestern Medicine (Medical and Surgical Association of the Southwest), 1917-19.
235. El Paso Herald, June 22, 1916, June 23, 1916; "List of Prostitutes in Foreign Contiguous Territory," case file 52484/23, RG 85; Bulletin (El Paso County Medical Society), 1909-16; Southwestern Medicine (Medical and Surgical Association of the Southwest), 1917-19.
236. El Paso Herald, June 22, 1916, June 23, 1916; "List of Prostitutes in Foreign Contiguous Territory," case file 52484/23, RG 85; Bulletin (El Paso County Medical Society), 1909-16; Southwestern Medicine (Medical and Surgical Association of the Southwest), 1917-19.
237. W. H. Blodgett, "The Doctor on the Border: An Estimate of the Soldier Doctor and Incidents in the Life of the Border Soldier," Indianapolis Medical Journal 19 (1916): 430-31.
238. M. J. Exner, "Prostitution in Its Relation to the Army on the Mexican Border," Social Hygiene, no. 3 (1917): 210-11. This second crib section was probably Lynchville, an area around Fort Boulevard near Fort Bliss where approximately thirty prostitutes operated throughout World War I. According to interviews, the girls charged three dollars a trick and were unofficially sanctioned by the civil and military police. Frost, 195- 96.
239. M. J. Exner, "Prostitution in Its Relation to the Army on the Mexican Border," Social Hygiene, no. 3 (1917): 210-11. This second crib section was probably Lynchville, an area around Fort Boulevard near Fort Bliss where approximately thirty prostitutes operated throughout World War I. According to interviews, the girls charged three dollars a trick and were unofficially sanctioned by the civil and military police. Frost, 195- 96.
240. El Paso Herald, August 7, 1916, June 4, 1917. See also Christian, "Newton Baker's War."
241. El Paso Herald, August 7, 1916, June 4, 1917. See also Christian, "Newton Baker's War."
242. El Paso Times, January 6, 1917, March 31, 1917, June 2, 1917, June 3, 1917; El Paso Herald, June 4, 1917, May 30, 1917.
243. El Paso Times, January 6, 1917, March 31, 1917, June 2, 1917, June 3, 1917; El Paso Herald, June 4, 1917, May 30, 1917.
244. El Paso Times, December 27, 1917, March 3, 1918.
245. El Paso Times, February 25, 1918, March 3, 1918; Woolston, 157-58.
246. El Paso Times, February 25, 1918, March 3, 1918; Woolston, 157-58.
247. Bascom Johnson, What Some Communities of the West and Southwest Have Done for the Protection of Morals and Health of Soldiers and Sailors (Washington, D. C., 1917), 8; El Paso Herald, September 26, 1918; Blodgett, 431; Wood, 6-14.
248. Bascom Johnson, What Some Communities of the West and Southwest Have Done for the Protection of Morals and Health of Soldiers and Sailors (Washington, D. C., 1917), 8; El Paso Herald, September 26, 1918; Blodgett, 431; Wood, 6-14.
249. Bascom Johnson, What Some Communities of the West and Southwest Have Done for the Protection of Morals and Health of Soldiers and Sailors (Washington, D. C., 1917), 8; El Paso Herald, September 26, 1918; Blodgett, 431; Wood, 6-14.
250. Bascom Johnson, What Some Communities of the West and Southwest Have Done for the Protection of Morals and Health of Soldiers and Sailors (Washington, D. C., 1917), 8; El Paso Herald, September 26, 1918; Blodgett, 431; Wood, 6-14.
251. Raymond Blaine Fosdick, Chronicle of a Generation, an Autobiography (New York, 1958), 135, 137, 144; "Military Venereal Zone Law, Bulletin No. 45," Southwestern Medicine 2 (1918): 13-14; Johnson, 2-3; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1927, 343-44; letter from Newton Baker to mayors of cities near military training camps, August 10, 1917, extract quoted in Johnson, 2; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a Forecast, 6-7, 9-10; Charles Walter Clark, Taboo: The Story of the Pioneers of Social Hygiene (Washington, D.C., 1961), 74-83.
252. Raymond Blaine Fosdick, Chronicle of a Generation, an Autobiography (New York, 1958), 135, 137, 144; "Military Venereal Zone Law, Bulletin No. 45," Southwestern Medicine 2 (1918): 13-14; Johnson, 2-3; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1927, 343-44; letter from Newton Baker to mayors of cities near military training camps, August 10, 1917, extract quoted in Johnson, 2; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a Forecast, 6-7, 9-10; Charles Walter Clark, Taboo: The Story of the Pioneers of Social Hygiene (Washington, D.C., 1961), 74-83.
253. Raymond Blaine Fosdick, Chronicle of a Generation, an Autobiography (New York, 1958), 135, 137, 144; "Military Venereal Zone Law, Bulletin No. 45," Southwestern Medicine 2 (1918): 13-14; Johnson, 2-3; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1927, 343-44; letter from Newton Baker to mayors of cities near military training camps, August 10, 1917, extract quoted in Johnson, 2; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a Forecast, 6-7, 9-10; Charles Walter Clark, Taboo: The Story of the Pioneers of Social Hygiene (Washington, D.C., 1961), 74-83.
254. Raymond Blaine Fosdick, Chronicle of a Generation, an Autobiography (New York, 1958), 135, 137, 144; "Military Venereal Zone Law, Bulletin No. 45," Southwestern Medicine 2 (1918): 13-14; Johnson, 2-3; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1927, 343-44; letter from Newton Baker to mayors of cities near military training camps, August 10, 1917, extract quoted in Johnson, 2; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a Forecast, 6-7, 9-10; Charles Walter Clark, Taboo: The Story of the Pioneers of Social Hygiene (Washington, D.C., 1961), 74-83.
255. Raymond Blaine Fosdick, Chronicle of a Generation, an Autobiography (New York, 1958), 135, 137, 144; "Military Venereal Zone Law, Bulletin No. 45," Southwestern Medicine 2 (1918): 13-14; Johnson, 2-3; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1927, 343-44; letter from Newton Baker to mayors of cities near military training camps, August 10, 1917, extract quoted in Johnson, 2; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a Forecast, 6-7, 9-10; Charles Walter Clark, Taboo: The Story of the Pioneers of Social Hygiene (Washington, D.C., 1961), 74-83.
256. Raymond Blaine Fosdick, Chronicle of a Generation, an Autobiography (New York, 1958), 135, 137, 144; "Military Venereal Zone Law, Bulletin No. 45," Southwestern Medicine 2 (1918): 13-14; Johnson, 2-3; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1927, 343-44; letter from Newton Baker to mayors of cities near military training camps, August 10, 1917, extract quoted in Johnson, 2; American Social Hygiene Association, A History and a Forecast, 6-7, 9-10; Charles Walter Clark, Taboo: The Story of the Pioneers of Social Hygiene (Washington, D.C., 1961), 74-83.
257. Daniel R. Beaver, Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort 1917- 1919 (Lincoln, Neb., 1966), 220-21. See Frank Wieland, College Men and Social Evils (New York, 1912).
258. Daniel R. Beaver, Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort 1917- 1919 (Lincoln, Neb., 1966), 220-21. See Frank Wieland, College Men and Social Evils (New York, 1912).
259. James Naismith to Maude Naismith, July 30, 1916, August 4, 1916, The Naismith Chronicles: Being Letters by, to, and about Dr. James Naismith, http://collections.ic.gc.ca/naismith/james/chronicles.htm., accessed October 21, 2001.
260. American Social Hygiene Association, Keeping Fit to Fight (New York, n.d.), 3, 4-5, 8.
261. Exner, 217-18; Woolston, 194-95; Kent Nelson, "The Prophylaxis of
262. Exner, 217-18; Woolston, 194-95; Kent Nelson, "The Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases in Our Army," Bulletin 4, no. 5 (1912): 19-25.
263. Exner, 217-18; Woolston, 194-95; Kent Nelson, "The Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases in Our Army," Bulletin 4, no. 5 (1912): 19-25.
264. "A Brief History of Venereal Diseases in the United States Army and Measures Employed for Their Suppression, June 14, 1917," box 131, file 3, American Social Health Association Records, Social Welfare History Archives, University of Minnesota Twin Cities; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1917, 352, 398, 407, 414; Johnson, 6-7.
265. "A Brief History of Venereal Diseases in the United States Army and Measures Employed for Their Suppression, June 14, 1917," box 131, file 3, American Social Health Association Records, Social Welfare History Archives, University of Minnesota Twin Cities; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1917, 352, 398, 407, 414; Johnson, 6-7.
266. "A Brief History of Venereal Diseases in the United States Army and Measures Employed for Their Suppression, June 14, 1917," box 131, file 3, American Social Health Association Records, Social Welfare History Archives, University of Minnesota Twin Cities; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1917, 352, 398, 407, 414; Johnson, 6-7.
267. Woolston, 116; American Social Hygiene Association, The Community, Prostitution and Venereal Disease: A Plan for Organized Action (New York, 1919), 17- 18, 30; Sandos, 627-28, 633-34; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1917, 398, 696-97, 742-43.
268. Woolston, 116; American Social Hygiene Association, The Community, Prostitution and Venereal Disease: A Plan for Organized Action (New York, 1919), 17- 18, 30; Sandos, 627-28, 633-34; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1917, 398, 696-97, 742-43.
269. Woolston, 116; American Social Hygiene Association, The Community, Prostitution and Venereal Disease: A Plan for Organized Action (New York, 1919), 17- 18, 30; Sandos, 627-28, 633-34; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1917, 398, 696-97, 742-43.
270. Woolston, 116; American Social Hygiene Association, The Community, Prostitution and Venereal Disease: A Plan for Organized Action (New York, 1919), 17- 18, 30; Sandos, 627-28, 633-34; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1917, 398, 696-97, 742-43.
271. Fosdick, 144-45; Allan M. Brandt, "From Social History to Social Policy," in Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox, eds., Aids: The Burdens of History (Berkeley, 1988), 151-52; United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 56-57, 71, 73-74; Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 88. The idea was to "drain a red-light district and destroy thereby a breeding place of syphilis and gonorrhea" just as one would "drain a swamp and destroy thereby a breeding place of malaria and yellow fever." Unnamed government official quoted in Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 72.
272. Fosdick, 144-45; Allan M. Brandt, "From Social History to Social Policy," in Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox, eds., Aids: The Burdens of History (Berkeley, 1988), 151-52; United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 56-57, 71, 73-74; Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 88. The idea was to "drain a red-light district and destroy thereby a breeding place of syphilis and gonorrhea" just as one would "drain a swamp and destroy thereby a breeding place of malaria and yellow fever." Unnamed government official quoted in Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 72.
273. Fosdick, 144-45; Allan M. Brandt, "From Social History to Social Policy," in Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox, eds., Aids: The Burdens of History (Berkeley, 1988), 151-52; United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 56-57, 71, 73-74; Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 88. The idea was to "drain a red-light district and destroy thereby a breeding place of syphilis and gonorrhea" just as one would "drain a swamp and destroy thereby a breeding place of malaria and yellow fever." Unnamed government official quoted in Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 72.
274. Fosdick, 144-45; Allan M. Brandt, "From Social History to Social Policy," in Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox, eds., Aids: The Burdens of History (Berkeley, 1988), 151-52; United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 56-57, 71, 73-74; Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 88. The idea was to "drain a red-light district and destroy thereby a breeding place of syphilis and gonorrhea" just as one would "drain a swamp and destroy thereby a breeding place of malaria and yellow fever." Unnamed government official quoted in Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 72.
275. Fosdick, 144-45; Allan M. Brandt, "From Social History to Social Policy," in Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox, eds., Aids: The Burdens of History (Berkeley, 1988), 151-52; United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 56-57, 71, 73-74; Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 88. The idea was to "drain a red-light district and destroy thereby a breeding place of syphilis and gonorrhea" just as one would "drain a swamp and destroy thereby a breeding place of malaria and yellow fever." Unnamed government official quoted in Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 72.
276. Texas women apparently also supported the plan, and members of suffragist and temperance organizations founded the Texas Women's Anti-Vice Committee in 1917 to establish "pure" areas around military bases. Conversely, there was a great deal of controversy when the state of New York passed a similar act, the Page Bill, in 1910. McArthur, 131-32; Critchett (Belle Christie) Papers; Scarlet Bowen, "El Paso Women's Suffrage Movement, 1915-1926," paper presented at the Gender on the Borderlands Conference, San Antonio, Tex., 2001, 2; Christian, The History, 365. See also Glasgow; Hobson; Lewis L. Gould, Progressives and Prohibitionists: Texas Democrats in the Wilson Era (Austin, 1973); David J. Pivar, Purity and Hygiene: Women, Prostitution, and the "American Plan," 1900-1930 (Westport, Conn., 2002), 212-16.
277. Texas women apparently also supported the plan, and members of suffragist and temperance organizations founded the Texas Women's Anti-Vice Committee in 1917 to establish "pure" areas around military bases. Conversely, there was a great deal of controversy when the state of New York passed a similar act, the Page Bill, in 1910. McArthur, 131-32; Critchett (Belle Christie) Papers; Scarlet Bowen, "El Paso Women's Suffrage Movement, 1915-1926," paper presented at the Gender on the Borderlands Conference, San Antonio, Tex., 2001, 2; Christian, The History, 365. See also Glasgow; Hobson; Lewis L. Gould, Progressives and Prohibitionists: Texas Democrats in the Wilson Era (Austin, 1973); David J. Pivar, Purity and Hygiene: Women, Prostitution, and the "American Plan," 1900-1930 (Westport, Conn., 2002), 212-16.
278. Texas women apparently also supported the plan, and members of suffragist and temperance organizations founded the Texas Women's Anti-Vice Committee in 1917 to establish "pure" areas around military bases. Conversely, there was a great deal of controversy when the state of New York passed a similar act, the Page Bill, in 1910. McArthur, 131-32; Critchett (Belle Christie) Papers; Scarlet Bowen, "El Paso Women's Suffrage Movement, 1915-1926," paper presented at the Gender on the Borderlands Conference, San Antonio, Tex., 2001, 2; Christian, The History, 365. See also Glasgow; Hobson; Lewis L. Gould, Progressives and Prohibitionists: Texas Democrats in the Wilson Era (Austin, 1973); David J. Pivar, Purity and Hygiene: Women, Prostitution, and the "American Plan," 1900-1930 (Westport, Conn., 2002), 212-16.
279. Texas women apparently also supported the plan, and members of suffragist and temperance organizations founded the Texas Women's Anti-Vice Committee in 1917 to establish "pure" areas around military bases. Conversely, there was a great deal of controversy when the state of New York passed a similar act, the Page Bill, in 1910. McArthur, 131-32; Critchett (Belle Christie) Papers; Scarlet Bowen, "El Paso Women's Suffrage Movement, 1915-1926," paper presented at the Gender on the Borderlands Conference, San Antonio, Tex., 2001, 2; Christian, The History, 365. See also Glasgow; Hobson; Lewis L. Gould, Progressives and Prohibitionists: Texas Democrats in the Wilson Era (Austin, 1973); David J. Pivar, Purity and Hygiene: Women, Prostitution, and the "American Plan," 1900-1930 (Westport, Conn., 2002), 212-16.
280. Texas women apparently also supported the plan, and members of suffragist and temperance organizations founded the Texas Women's Anti-Vice Committee in 1917 to establish "pure" areas around military bases. Conversely, there was a great deal of controversy when the state of New York passed a similar act, the Page Bill, in 1910. McArthur, 131-32; Critchett (Belle Christie) Papers; Scarlet Bowen, "El Paso Women's Suffrage Movement, 1915-1926," paper presented at the Gender on the Borderlands Conference, San Antonio, Tex., 2001, 2; Christian, The History, 365. See also Glasgow; Hobson; Lewis L. Gould, Progressives and Prohibitionists: Texas Democrats in the Wilson Era (Austin, 1973); David J. Pivar, Purity and Hygiene: Women, Prostitution, and the "American Plan," 1900-1930 (Westport, Conn., 2002), 212-16.
281. Texas women apparently also supported the plan, and members of suffragist and temperance organizations founded the Texas Women's Anti-Vice Committee in 1917 to establish "pure" areas around military bases. Conversely, there was a great deal of controversy when the state of New York passed a similar act, the Page Bill, in 1910. McArthur, 131-32; Critchett (Belle Christie) Papers; Scarlet Bowen, "El Paso Women's Suffrage Movement, 1915-1926," paper presented at the Gender on the Borderlands Conference, San Antonio, Tex., 2001, 2; Christian, The History, 365. See also Glasgow; Hobson; Lewis L. Gould, Progressives and Prohibitionists: Texas Democrats in the Wilson Era (Austin, 1973); David J. Pivar, Purity and Hygiene: Women, Prostitution, and the "American Plan," 1900-1930 (Westport, Conn., 2002), 212-16.
282. In Texas the foreign-born were overrepresented in the detained group at 17.3 percent compared to a population of 5.5 percent. Nationally, the opposite occurred, at 8 percent foreign-born arrested compared to 14.7 percent in the general population. United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 52, 76-77, 83-84.
283. Wood, 6-14; Mary Macey Dietzler, Thomas Andrew Storey, and United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Detention Houses and Reformatories as Protective Social Agencies in the Campaign of the United States Government against Venereal Diseases (Washington, D.C., 1922), 11, 178-80; United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 8.
284. Wood, 6-14; Mary Macey Dietzler, Thomas Andrew Storey, and United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Detention Houses and Reformatories as Protective Social Agencies in the Campaign of the United States Government against Venereal Diseases (Washington, D.C., 1922), 11, 178-80; United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 8.
285. Wood, 6-14; Mary Macey Dietzler, Thomas Andrew Storey, and United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Detention Houses and Reformatories as Protective Social Agencies in the Campaign of the United States Government against Venereal Diseases (Washington, D.C., 1922), 11, 178-80; United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 8.
286. Shannon Bell, Reading, Writing, and Rewriting the Prostitute Body (Bloomington, 1994); Elizabeth Fee, "Sin vs. Science: Venereal Disease in Baltimore in the Twentieth Century," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 43, no. 2 (1988): 121-22. See also Mazyck P. Ravenel, "The Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Social Hygiene 3 (1917): 185-95.
287. Shannon Bell, Reading, Writing, and Rewriting the Prostitute Body (Bloomington, 1994); Elizabeth Fee, "Sin vs. Science: Venereal Disease in Baltimore in the Twentieth Century," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 43, no. 2 (1988): 121-22. See also Mazyck P. Ravenel, "The Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Social Hygiene 3 (1917): 185-95.
288. Shannon Bell, Reading, Writing, and Rewriting the Prostitute Body (Bloomington, 1994); Elizabeth Fee, "Sin vs. Science: Venereal Disease in Baltimore in the Twentieth Century," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 43, no. 2 (1988): 121-22. See also Mazyck P. Ravenel, "The Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases," Social Hygiene 3 (1917): 185-95.
289. United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 180; El Paso Herald, February 12, 1920; Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation," 32-33; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1918 (Washington, D.C., 1919), 5007-26; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1919 (Washington, D.C., 1920), 2341-80; Woolston, 310.
290. United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 180; El Paso Herald, February 12, 1920; Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation," 32-33; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1918 (Washington, D.C., 1919), 5007-26; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1919 (Washington, D.C., 1920), 2341-80; Woolston, 310.
291. United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 180; El Paso Herald, February 12, 1920; Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation," 32-33; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1918 (Washington, D.C., 1919), 5007-26; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1919 (Washington, D.C., 1920), 2341-80; Woolston, 310.
292. United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 180; El Paso Herald, February 12, 1920; Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation," 32-33; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1918 (Washington, D.C., 1919), 5007-26; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1919 (Washington, D.C., 1920), 2341-80; Woolston, 310.
293. United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 180; El Paso Herald, February 12, 1920; Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation," 32-33; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1918 (Washington, D.C., 1919), 5007-26; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1919 (Washington, D.C., 1920), 2341-80; Woolston, 310.
294. United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Manual, 180; El Paso Herald, February 12, 1920; Pivar, "Cleansing the Nation," 32-33; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1918 (Washington, D.C., 1919), 5007-26; United States War Department, War Department Annual Reports, 1919 (Washington, D.C., 1920), 2341-80; Woolston, 310.
295. During the next two decades quasi-legal red-light districts resurfaced in several Texas towns, including Galveston, San Antonio, and Dallas. Humphrey, "Prostitution in Texas," 32.