Recent increases in platinum metals in the environment from vehicle catalytic converters

Transactions of the Institutions of Mining and Metallurgy, Section B: Applied Earth Science

Volumn 114, Issue 3, 2005, Pages

  Farago, Margaret E ^a,b   Hutchinson, Emma Jane ^c   Simpson, Peter R ^a   Thornton, Iain ^a  

^a IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c LONDON SCHOOL OF HYGIENE AND TROPICAL MEDICINE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Environment; Platinum metals; Vehicle catalytic converters

Indexed keywords

ECOSYSTEMS; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; HEALTH RISKS; PARTICULATE EMISSIONS; PLATINUM METALS;

PLATINUM GROUP ELEMENTS; VEHICLE CATALYTIC CONVERTERS; VEHICLE EXHAUST CATALYSTS;

CATALYTIC CONVERTERS;

CATALYSIS; EXHAUST EMISSION; PLATINUM;

EID: 26244451390     PISSN: 03717453     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1179/037174505X45531     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. F. ALT and J. MESSERSCHMIDT: 'Edelmetallemission durch Katalysatoren Beitrag der Analytischen Chemie zur Abschätzung des Gefahrenpotentials', (ed. K. Dörner), Akute und chronische Toxizitat von Spurenelementen. 8. Jahrestagung der Gesellschaft fur Mineralstoffe and Spurenelemente, Vol. V, Kiel, 9-10 October 1993, Stuttgart, Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1993, 85-92.
2. F. ALT, H. R. ESCHNAUER, B. MERGLER, J. MESSERSCHMIDT and G. TÖLG: 'Contribution to the ecology and enology of platinum', Fresenius J. Anal. Chem., 1997, 357, 1013-1019.
3. S. ARTELT, H. KOCK, H. P. KÖNIG, K. LEVSEN and G. ROSNER: 'Engine dynamometer experiments: platinum emissions from differently aged three-way catalytic converters', Atmos. Environ., 1999, 33, 3559-3567.
4. D. B. BAKER, P. H. GANN, S. M. BROOKS, J. GALLAGHER and I. L. BERNSTEIN: 'Cross-sectional study of platinum salts sensitization among precious metals refinery workers', Am. J. Ind. Med., 1990, 18, 653-664.
5. C. BARBANTE, G. COZZI, G. CAPODAGLIO, K. VAN DE VELDE, C. FERRARI, A. VEYSSEYRE et al.: 'Determination of Rh, Pd and Pt in polar and Alpine snow and ice by double focusing ICP-MS with microconcentric nebulization', Anal. Chem., 1999, 71, 4125-4133.
6. C. BARBANTE, A. VEYSSEYRE, C. FERRARI, K. VAN DE VELDE, C. MOREL, G. CAPODAGLIO et al.: 'Greenland snow evidence of large scale atmospheric contamination for platinum, palladium and rhodium', Environ. Sci. Technol., 2001, 35, 835-839.
7. G. BECK, H-H. BEYER, W. GERHARTZ, J. HAUSSELT and U. ZWEINER: In: (ed. A. G. Degussa), Edelmatalltaschenbuch, Heidelberg, Huthig, 1995 (Cited in Kümmerer et al., 1999), 57.
8. J. BEGEROW, J. NEUENDORF, M. TURFELD, W. RAAB and L. DUNEMANN: 'Long-term urinary platinum, palladium, and gold excretion of patients after insertion of noble-metal dental alloys', Biomarkers, 1999, 1, 27-36.
9. B. BOCCA, A. ALIMONTI, A. CRISTAUDO, E. CRISTALLINI, F. PETRUCCI and S. CAROLI: 'Monitoring of the exposure to platinum-group elements for two Italian population groups through urine analysis', Anal. Chim. Acta, 2004, 512, 19-25.
10. B. BOCCA, F. PETRUCCI, A. ALIMONTE and S. CAROLI: 'Traffic related platinum and rhodium concentrations in the atmosphere of Rome', J. Environ. Monit., 2003, 5, 563-568.
11. D. BOSTEELS and R. A. SEARLES: 'Exhaust emission catalyst technology: new challenges and opportunities in Europe', Platinum Metals Rev., 2002, 46, 27-36.
12. R. BOYD, H. NISKAVAARA, E. KONTAS, V. CHEKUSHIN, V. PAVLOV, M. OFTEN et al.: 'Anthropogenic noble-metal enrichment of topsoil in the Monchegorsk area, Kola Peninsula, northwest Russia', J. Geochem. Explor., 1997, 58, 283-289.
13. S. CAROLI, A. ALIMONTI, F. PETRUCCI, B. BOCCA, M. KRACHLER, F. FORASTIERE et al. 'Assessment of exposure to platinum-group metals in urban children', Spectrochim. Acta Part B, 2001, 56, 1241-1248.
14. D. CICCHELLA, B. DE VIVO and A. LIMA: 'Palladium and platinum concentrations from the Napoli metropolitan area, Italy: possible effects of catalytic exhausts', Sci. Tot. Environ., 2003, 308, 121-131.
15. E. CULBARD, I. THORNTON, J. WATT, S. MOORCROFT, K. BROOKS and M. THOMPSON: 'Metal contamination of dusts and soils in urban and rural households in the United Kingdom: a nationwide reconnaissance survey of the United Kingdom to determine metal concentrations in urban dusts and soils', Symposium on Trace Substances in Environmental Health XVII, Missouri, Columbia, 1983, 236-241.
16. M. DAENEN, PH. ROGIERS, C. VAN DE WALLE, F. ROCHETTE, M. DEMEDTS and B. NEMERY: 'Occupational asthma caused by palladium', Eur. Respir. J., 1999, 13, 213-216.
17. A. R. DALE, A. E. DAVIS and Y. Y. CHEUNG: 'The potential of fire assay and inductively couples plasma source mass spectrometry for the determination of platinum group elements in geological materials', Analyst, 1987, 112, 1217-1222.
18. C. B. DISSANAYAKE, K. KRITSOTAKIS and H. J. TOBSCHALL: 'The abundance of Au, Pt, and Pd, and the mode of fixation in highly polluted sediments from the Rhine river, near Mainz, West Germany. Int. J. Environ. Studies, 1984, 22, 109-119.
19. R. DJINGOVA, P. KOVACHEVA, G. WAGNER and B. MARKERT: 'Distribution of platinum group elements and other traffic related elements among different plants along some highways in Germany', Sci. Tot. Environ., 2003, 308, 235-246.
20. G. DONGARRA, D. VARRICA and G. SABATINO: 'Occurrence of platinum, palladium and gold in pine needles of Pinus pinea L. from the city of Palerno (Italy). Appl. Geochem., 2003, 18, 109-116.
21. K. H. EK, S. RAUCH, G. M. MORRISON and P. LINDBERG: 'Platinum group elements in raptor eggs, faeces, blood, liver and kidney', Sci. Tot. Environ., 2004, 334/335, 149-159.
22. K. H. EK, G. M. MORRISON and S. RAUCH: 'Environmental routes for platinum group elements to biological materials - a review. Sci Tot. Environ., 2004, 334/335, 21-38.
23. J. C. ELY, C. R. NEAL, C. F. KULPA, M. A. SCHNEEGURT, J. A. SEIDLER and J. C. JAIN: 'Implications of platinum-group element accumulation along U.S. roads from catalytic-converter attrition. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2001, 35, 3816-3822.
24. M. E. FARAGO, P. KAVANAGH, R. BLANKS, G. KAZANTZIS, I. THORNTON, P. R. SIMPSON et al.: 'Platinum concentrations in urban road dusts and soil, and in blood and urine in the UK', Analyst, 1998, 123, 451-454.
25. M. E. FARAGO, P. KAVANAGH, R. BLANKS, J. KELLY, G. KAZANTZIS, I. THORNTON et al. 'Platinum metal concentrations in urban road dust and soil in the United Kingdom', Fresenius J Anal Chem., 1996, 354, 660-663.
26. M. E. FARAGO, P. KAVANAGH, R. BLANKS, P. R. SIMPSON, G. KAZANTZIS, I. THORNTON et al. 'Platinum group metals in the environment: their use in vehicle exhaust catalysts and implications for human health in the UK', A report prepared for the UK Department of the Environment, 1995, 1-182.
27. M. E. FARAGO, E. J. HUTCHINSON, N. CHANDRAN and P. R. SIMPSON: 'Increases in platinum metals in the UK and possible health effects', (Eds. J. A. Centano, P. Collery, G. Vernet, R. B. Finkelman, H. Gibb, J. C. Etienne), Metal ions in biology and medicine, Vol. 6. Paris, John Libbey Eurotext, 2000, 307-309.
28. D. FLIEGEL, Z. BERNER, D. ECKHARDT and D. STÜBEN: 'New data on the mobility of Pt emitted from catalytic converters', Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 2004, 379, 131-136.
29. J. FRITSCHE and T. MEISEL: 'Determination of anthropogenic input of Ru, Rh, Pd, Re, Os, Ir and Pt in soils along Austrian motorways by isotope dilution ICP-MS', Sci. Total Environ. 2004, 325, 145-154.
30. E. D. GOLDBERG: 'Comparative chemistry of platinum and other heavy elements in the marine environment', Pure Appl. Chem., 1987, 68, 4209-4217.
31. E. D. GOLDBERG, V. F. HODGE, J. J. GRIFFIN, M. KOIDE and D. M. EDDINGTON: 'The impact of fossil fuel combustion on the sediments of Lake Michigan', Environ. Sci. Technol., 1981, 15, 446-471.
32. E. D. GOLDBERG, V. F. HODGE, P. KAY, M. STALLARD and M. KOKTE: 'Some comparative marine chemistries of platinum and iridium', Appl. Geochem., 1986, 1, 227-233.
33. E. D. GOLDBERG and M. KOIDE: 'Understanding the marine chemistries of the platinum metals', Marine Chem., 1990, 30, 249-257.
34. B. GOMEZ, M. A. PALACIOS, M. GOMEZ, J. L. SANCHEZ, G. MORRISON, S. RAUCH et al.: 'Levels and risk assessment for humans and ecosystems of platinum-group elements in the airborne particles and road dust of some European cities', Sci. Tot. Environ., 2002, 299, 1-19.
35. B. GOMEZ, M. GOMEZ, J. SANCHEZ, R. FERNANDEZ and M. PALACIOS: 'Platinum and rhodium distribution in airborne particulate matter and road dust', Sci. Tot. Environ., 2001, 269, 131-144.
36. D. GREKUREK, F. MELCHER, H. NISKAVAARA, V. PAVLOV, C. REIMANN and E. F. STUMPFL: 'Platinum group elements (Rh, Pt, Pd) and Au distribution in snow samples from the Kola Peninsula, NW Russia', Atmos. Environ., 1999, 33, 3281-3290.
37. G. E. M. HALL and J. C. PELCHAT: 'Analysis of geological materials for gold, platinum and palladium at low ppb levels by fire assay-ICP mass spectrometry', Chem. Geol., 1994, 115, 61-72.
38. R. M. HARRISON: 'Key pollutants - airborne particles. Sci. Tot. Environ., 2004, 334/335, 3-8.
39. E. HEINRICH, G. SCHMIDT and K. L. KRATZ: 'Determination of platinum-group elements (PGE) from catalytic converters in soils by means of docimasy and INAA', Fresenius J. Anal. Chem., 1996, 354, 883-885.
40. E. HELMERS and K. KÜMMERER: 'Anthropogenic platinum fluxes: quantification of sources and sinks, and outlook'. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 1999, 6, 29-36.
41. E. HELMERS, N. MERGEL and R. BARCHET: 'Platin in Klärschlammasche und an Gräsern', UWSF - Z Umweltchem Ökotoxicol., 1994, 6, 130-134.
42. E. HELMERS: 'Platinum emission rate of automobiles with catalytic converters: comparison and assessment of results from various approaches, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 1997, 4, 100-103.
43. C. E. W. HERR, M. JANKOFSKY, J. ANGERER, W. KUSTER, N. I. STILIANAKIS, U. GIELER et al.: 'Influences on human internal exposure to environmental platinum', J. Exposure Anal. Environ. Epidemiol., 2003, 13, 24-30.
44. E. HIGNEY, V. OLIVE, A. B. MACKENZIE and I. D. PULFORD: 'Isotope dilution ICP-MS analysis of platinum in road dusts from west central Scotland', Appl. Geochem., 2002, 17, 1123-1129.
45. K. HOPPSTOCK and M. MICHULITZ: 'Voltammetric determination of trace platinum in gasoline after Wickbold combustion', Anal. Chim. Acta, 1997, 350, 135-140.
46. HSE (Health and Safety Executive): 'Occupational exposure limits 1990', Guidance Note EH 40190, (MDHS 46), London, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1990, 1-4.
47. E. J. HUTCHINSON and P. J. G. PEARSON: 'An evaluation of the environmental and health effects of vehicle exhaust catalysts in the United Kingdom', Environ. Health Perspect., 2004, 112, 132-141.
48. E. J. HUTCHINSON: 'An evaluation of the environmental, economic and social benefits arising from the use of vehicle exhaust catalysts', Unpublished PhD Thesis, Imperial College, University of London, 2001.
49. E. J. HUTCHINSON, M. E. FARAGO and P. R. SIMPSON: 'Changes in platinum concentrations in soils and dusts from UK cities', (Eds. F. Zereini, F. Alt), Anthropogenic platinum-group element emissions. Their impact on man and environment. Berlin, Springer, 2000, 57-64.
50. I. IAVICOLI, B. BOCCA, F. PETRUCCI, O. SENOFONTE, G. CARELLI, A. ALIMONTE et al.: 'Biomonitoring of traffic police officers exposed to airborne platinum', Occup. Environ. Med., 2004, 61, 636-639.
51. K. E. JARVIS, S. J. PARRY and J. M. PIPER: 'Temporal and spatial studies of autocatalyst-derived platinum, rhodium, and palladium and selected vehicle-derived trace elements in the environment', Environ. Sci. Technol., 2001, 35, 1031-1036.
52. K. H. JENSEN, S. RAUCH, G. M. MORRISON and P. LINDBERG: 'Platinum group elements in the feathers of raptors and their prey', Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 2002, 42, 338-347.
53. K. KANISTAR, G. KOELLENSPERGER, S. HANN, A. LIMBECK, H. PUXBAUM and G. STINGEDER: 'Determination of Pt, Pd and Rh by inductively coupled plasma sector field mass spectrometry (ICP-SFMS) in size-classified urban aerosol samples', J. Anal. Atomic Spectrom., 2003, 18, 239-246.
54. T. KENDALL: 'Platinum 2004', London, Johnson Matthey, 2004, 32-37.
55. J. KIELHORN, C. MELBER, D. KELLER and I. MANGELSDORF: 'Palladium - a review of exposure and effects to human health', Int. J. Hygiene Environ. Health, 2002, 205, 417-432.
56. U. KRÄMER, T. KOCH, U. RANFT, J. RING and H. BEHRENDT: 'Traffic-related air pollution is associated with atopy in children living in urban areas', Epidemiology, 2000, 11, 64-70.
57. K. KÜMMERER, E. HELMERS, P. HUBNER, G. MASCART, M. MILANDRI, F. REINTHALER et al.: 'European hospitals as a source for platinum in the environment in comparison with other sources', Sci. Total Environ., 1999, 225, 155-165.
58. N. KUNZLI, R. KAISER, S. MEDINA, M. STUDNICKA, O. CHANEL, P. FILLIGER et al.: 'Public-health impact of outdoor and traffic-related air pollution: a European assessment', Lancet, 2000, 356, 795-801
59. M. E. KYLANDER, S. RAUCH, G. M. MORRISON and K. ANDAM: 'Impact of automobile emissions on the levels of platinum and lead in Accra, Ghana', J. Environ. Monit., 2003, 5, 91-95.
60. D. S. LEE: 'Palladium and nickel in north-east Pacific waters', Nature, 1983, 305, 47-48.
61. B. A. LESNIEWSKA, B. GODLEWSKA-ZYLKIEWICZ, B. BOCCA, S. CAIMI, S. CAROLI and A. HULANICKI: 'Platinum, palladium and rhodium content in road dust, tunnel dust and common grass in Bialystok area (Poland): a pilot study', Sci. Total Environ., 2004, 321, 93-104.
62. B. G. LOTTERMOSER: 'Gold and platinoids in sewage sludges', Int. J. Environ. Studies, 1994, 46, 167-171.
63. S. LUSTIG, S. ZANG, W. BECK and P. SCHRAMEL: 'Dissolution of metallic platinum as water soluble species by naturally occurring complexing agents', Mikrochim. Acta, 1998, 129, 189-194.
64. R. MAYNARD: 'Key airborne pollutants - the impact on health', Sci. Total Environ., 2004, 334/335, 9-13.
65. R. MERGET, R. KULZER, A. DIERKES-GLOBISCH, R. BREITSTADT, A. GEBLER, A. KNIFFKA et al.: 'Exposure-effect relationship of platinum salt allergy in a catalyst production plant: conclusions from a 5-year prospective cohort study', J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2000, 105, 364-370.
66. R. MERGET and G. ROSNER: 'Evaluation of the health risk of platinum group metals emitted from automotive catalytic converters', Sci. Total Environ., 2001, 270, 165-173.
67. M. MOLDOVAN, M. A. PALACIOS, M. M. GOMEZ, G. MORRISON, S. RAUCH, C. MCLEOD et al.: 'Environmental risk of particulate and soluble group elements released from gasoline and diesel engine catalytic converters', Sci. Total Environ., 2002, 296, 199-208.
68. O. MORTON, H. PUCHELT, E. HERNANDEZ and E. LOUNEJEVA: 'Traffic-related platinum group elements (PGE) in soils from Mexico City', J. Geochem. Explor., 2001, 72, 223-227.
69. M. NIEMELÄ, P. PERÄMÄKI, J. PIISPANEN and J. POIKOLAINEN: 'Determination of platinum and rhodium in dust and plant samples using microwave-assisted sample digestion and ICP-MS', Anal. Chim. Acta 2004, 521, 137-142.
70. H. NISKAVAARA, E. KONTAS and C. REIMANN: 'Regional distribution and sources of Au, Pd and Pt in moss and O-, B- and C-horizon podzol samples in the European Arctic', Geochem. Explor Environ. Anal., 2004, 4, 143-159.
71. P. ORBAEK: 'Allergy to the complex salts of platinum. A review of the literature and three case reports', Scand. J. Work Environ. Health., 1982, 8, 141-145.
72. M. A. PALACIOS, M. GOMEZ, M. MOLDOVAN, G. MORRISON, S. RAUCH, C. MCLEOD et al.: 'Platinum-group elements: quantification in collected exhaust fumes and studies of catalyst surfaces', Sci. Total Environ., 2000, 257, 1-15.
73. J. PECKHAM: 'Metallic additives retrofit prospects likely improve', Diesel Fuel News, 18 February 2002.
74. P. J. PETERSON and M. J. MINSKI: 'Precious metals in living organisms', Inerdisciplinary Sci. Rev., 1985, 10, 159-169.
75. F. PETRUCCI, B. BOCCA, A. ALIMONTI and S. CAROLI: 'Determination of Pd, Pt and Rh in airborne particulate and road dust by high-resolution ICP-MS: a preliminary investigation of the emission from automotive catalysts in the urban area of Rome', J. Anal. Atomic Spectrom., 2000, 15, 525-528.
76. K. PYRZYŃSKA: 'Viewpoint: monitoring of platinum in the environment', J. Environ. Monit., 2000, 2, 99N-103N.
77. S. RAUCH, G. M. MORRISON and M. MOLDOVAN: 'Scanning laser ablation-ICP-MS tracking of platinum group elements in urban particles. Sci. Total Environ., 2002, 286, 243-251.
78. S. RAUCH and H. F. HEMOND:, 'Sediment-based evidence of platinum concentration changes in an urban lake near Boston, Massachusetts', Environ. Sci. Technol., 2003, 37, 3283-3288.
79. S. RAUCH, H. F. HEMOND and B. PEUCKEREHRENBRIN: 'Source characterisation of atmospheric platinum group element deposition into an ombrotrophic peat bog', J. Environ. Monit., 2004, 6, 335-343.
80. S. RAUCH, M. LU and G. M. MORRISON: 'Heterogeneity of platinum group metals in airborne particles', Environ. Sci. Technol., 2001, 35, 595-599.
81. K. RAVINDRA, L. BENCS and R. VAN GRIEKEN: 'Platinum group elements in the environment and their health risk', Sci. Total Environ., 2004, 318, 1-43.
82. H. RENNER and G. SCHMUCKLER: 'Platinum group metals', (Ed. E. Merian), Metals and their compounds in the environment, occurrence, analysis and biological relevance, New York, VCH, 1991, 1136-1151.
83. B. ROSENBERG: 'Platinum complexes for the treatment of cancer', Interdisciplinary Sci. Rev., 1978, 3, 134-147.
84. B. ROSENBERG, L. VAN CAMP and T. KRIGAS: 'Inhibition of cell division in E. coli by electrolysis products from a platinum electrode', Nature, 1965, 93, 716-721.
85. B. SANTUCCI, C. VALENZANO, M. DE ROCCO and A. CRISTAUDO: 'Platinum in the environment: frequency of reactions to platinum-group elements in patients with dermatitis and urticaria', Contact Dermatitis, 2000, 43, 333-338.
86. J. SCHÄFER and H. PUCHELT: 'Platinum-group-metals (PGM) emitted from automobile catalytic converters and their distribution in roadside soils', J. Geochem. Explor., 1998, 64, 307-314.
87. J. SCHÄFER, J-D. ECKHARDT, Z. A. BERNER and D. STÜBEN: 'Time-dependent increase of traffic-emitted platinum-group elements (PGE) in different environmental compartments', Environ. Sci. Technol., 1999, 33, 3166-3170.
88. R. SCHIERL: 'Urinary platinum levels associated with dental gold alloys', Arch. Environ. Health, 2001, 56, 283-286.
89. R. P. F. SCHINS, D. POLAT, J. BEGEROW, M. TURFELD, A. BECKER and P. J. A. BORM: 'Platinum levels in nasal lavage fluid as a biomarker for traffic-related exposure and inflammation in children', Sci. Tot. Environ., 2004, 334/335, 447-445.
90. G. SCHMIDT, H. PALME and K-L. KRATZ: 'Highly siderophile elements (Re, Os, Ir, Ru, Rh, Pd, Au) in impact melts from three European impact craters (Saaksjarvi, Mien and Dellen): clues to the nature of the impact bodies', Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 1997, 61, 2977-2987.
91. P. R. SIMPSON, H. ROBOTHAM and G. E. M. HALL: 'Regional geochemical orientation studies for platinum in Jamaica', Appl. Earth Sci. (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 1990, 99, B183-B187.
92. P. A. STEERENBERG, S. NIERKENS, P. H. FISCHER, H. VAN LOVEREN, A. OPPER-HUIZEN, J. G. VOS et al.: 'Traffic-related air pollution affects peak expiratory flow, exhaled nitric oxide, and inflammatory nasal markers', Arch. Environ. Health, 2001, 56, 167-174.
93. R. A. SUTHERLAND: 'A first look at platinum in road-deposited sediments and roadside soils, Honolulu, Ohahu, Hawaii', Environ. Arch. Contam. Toxicol., 2003, 44, 430-436.
94. I. THORNTON, J. M. WATT, D. J. A. DAVIES, A. HUNT, J. COTTER-HOWELLS and D. L. JOHNSON: 'Lead contamination of UK dusts and soils and implications for childhood exposure: an overview of the work of the Environmental Geochemistry Research Group, Imperial College, London, England 1981-1992'. Environ. Geochem. Health, 1994, 16, 113-122.
95. C. B. TUIT, G. E. RAVIZZA and M. H. BOTHNER: 'Anthropogenic platinum and palladium in the sediments of Boston Harbor', Environ. Sci. Technol., 2000, 34, 927-932.
96. K. VAN DE VELDE, C. BARBANTE, G. COZZI, I. MORET, T. BELLOMI, C. FERRARI et al.: 'Changes in the occurrence of silver, gold, platinum, palladium and rhodium in Mont Blanc ice and snow since the 18th century', Atmos. Environ., 2000, 34, 3117-3127.
97. N. I. WARD and L. M. DUDDING: 'Platinum emissions and levels in motorway dust samples: influence of traffic characteristics', Sci. Total Environ., 2004, 334/335, 457-463.
98. J. C. WATANABE, R. G. CRAIG and C. T. HANKS: 'The release of elements of dental alloys into cell-culture medium', J. Dental Res., 1991, 70, 1014-1018.
99. J. WATT, S. MOORCROFT, K. BROOKS, E. CULBARD and I. THORNTON: 'Metal contamination of dusts and soils in urban and rural households in the United Kingdom: sampling and analytical techniques for household and external dusts', Symposium on Trace Substances in Environmental Health XVII, Missouri, Columbia, 1983, 230-235.
100. K. H. WEDEPOHL: 'The composition of the continental crust', Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 1995, 59, 1217-1232.
101. C. WEI: 'Metal speciation and toxicity in urban river sediments', Doktorsavhandilngar n 934, Chalmers Tekniska Hogskola, 1993, 1-60.
102. C. WEI and G. M. MORRISON: 'Platinum analyses and speciation in urban gulleypots', Anal, Chim. Acta, 1994, 284, 587-592.
103. J. D. WHITELY and F. MURRAY: 'Anthropogenic platinum group element (Pt, Pd and Rh) concentrations in road dusts and roadside soils from Perth, Western Australia', Sci. Total Environ., 2003, 317, 121-135.
104. J. WITTSIEPE, P. SCHREY, M. WILHELM, J. BEGEROW and L. DUNEMANN: 'Dietary intake of platinum and gold by children from Germany using duplicate portion sampling', J. Trace Elements Med. Biol., 2003, 17, 117-122.
105. R. ZEISLER and R. R. GREENBERG: 'Determinations of subnanomole elemental levels by NAA and their possible impact on human health related issues', Biol. Trace Element Res., 1999, 71, 283-289.
106. F. ZEREINI, F. ALT, J. MESSERSCHMIDT, A. VON BOLEN, K. LIEBL and W. PÜTTMANN: 'Concentration and distribution of platinum group elements (Pt, Pd, Rh) in airborne particulate matter in Frankfurt am Main, Germany', Environ. Sci. Technol., 2004, 38, 1686-1692.
107. F. ZEREINI, F. ALT, K. RANKENBURG, J. M. BEYER and S. ARTELT: 'The distribution of platinum group elements (PGE) in the environmental compartments of soil, mud, roadside dust, road sweeping and water: emission of the platinum group elements (PGE) from motor vehicle catalytic converters', UWSF - Z. Umweltchem. Okotoxicol., 1997, 9, 193-200.
108. F. ZEREINI, C. WISEMAN, F. ALT, J. MESSERSCHMIDT, J. MÜLLER and H. URBAN: 'Platinum and rhodium concentrations in airborne particulate matter in Germany from 1988 to 1998', Environ. Sci Technol., 2001, 35, 1996-2000.
109. F. ZEREINI, C. ZIENTEK and H. URBAN: 'Konzentration und Verteilung von Platingruppenelementen (PGE) in Böden', UWFS - Z. Umweltchem. Ökotoxicol., 1993, 5, 130-134.
110. S. ZIMMERMANN, C. M. MENZEL, D. STÜBEN, H. TARASCHEWSKI and B. SURES: 'Lipid solubility of the platinum group metals Pt, Pd and Rh in dependence on the presence of complexing agents', Environ. Pollut., 2003, 124, 1-5.
111. S. ZIMMERMANN and B. SURES: 'Significance of platinum group metals emitted from automobile exhaust gas converters for the biosphere', Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 2004, 11, 194-199.