Law for the sea's biological diversity

Columbia Journal of Transnational Law

Volumn 36, Issue 1-2, 1997, Pages 341-370

  Anton, Donald K ^a,b  

^a Environmental Defender's Office   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 26244446281     PISSN: 00101931     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (185)

1. LOUIS HENKIN, INTERNATIONAL LAW: POLITICS AND VALUES 94 (1995).
2. See U.N. World Commission On Environment and Development: Our Common Future, U.N. GAOR, 42d Sess., Annex to U.N. Doc. A/42/427, ch. 2, at 54 (1987).
3. Louis Henkin, Changing Law for the Changing Seas, in USES OF THE SEAS 69, 95-96 (E. A. Guillion ed., 1968).
4. At the time Professor Henkin was writing, the law for the deep seabed was, and indeed remains to a large degree, unsettled. See Jonathan I. Charney, Entry Into Force of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea, 35 VA. J. INT'L L. 381, 397-98 (1995).
5. See LOUIS HENKIN, LAW FOR THE SEA'S MINERAL RESOURCES (1968) [hereinafter MINERAL RESOURCES]. For a number of economic reasons, it remains doubtful whether deep seabed mining will be viable in the near future.
6. See Porter Hoagland, Manganese Nodules: Price Trends: Dim Prospects for Commercialization of Deep Seabed Mining, in THE ROLE OF THE OCEANS IN THE 21ST CENTURY 331 (Seoung-Yong et al. eds., 1995);
7. Report of the Group of Technical Experts to the General Committee of the Preparatory Commission for the International Seabed Authority and for the International Tribunal of the Law of the Sea, U.N. Doc. LOS/PCN/BUR/R.32 (1994).
8. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, done at Montego Bay, Dec. 10, 1982, U.N. Doc. A/CONF. 62/122 (1982), reprinted in 21 I.L.M. 1261 (1982) and UNITED NATIONS, THE LAW OF THE SEA, U.N. Sales No. E.83.V.5 (1983) [hereinafter L.O.S. Convention].
9. See, e.g., HENKIN, supra note 1, ch. 5; Henkin, supra note 3; MINERAL RESOURCES, supra note 5; Louis Henkin, International Law and "the Interests": the Law of the Seabed, 63 AM. J. INT'L L. 504 (1969);
10. Louis Henkin, A Reply to Mr. Finlay, 64 AM. J. INT'L L. 62 (1970);
11. Louis Henkin, Arctic Anti-Pollution: Does Canada Make - or Break - International Law, 65 AM. J. INT'L L. 131 (1971);
12. Louis Henkin, The Once and Future Law of the Sea, in TRANSNATIONAL LAW IN A CHANGING SOCIETY: ESSAYS IN HONOR OF PHILIP C. JESSUP 155 (Wolfgang G. Friedmann et al. eds., 1972);
13. Louis Henkin, Politics and the Changing Law of the Sea, 89 POL. SCI. Q. 46 ( 1974);
14. LOUIS HENKIN, HOW NATIONS BEHAVE: LAW AND FOREIGN POLICY, ch. 11 (2d ed. 1979) [hereinafter HOW NATIONS BEHAVE];
15. Louis Henkin, The Constitution at Sea, 36 MAINE L. REV. 201 (1984);
16. LOUIS HENKIN ET AL., INTERNATIONAL LAW: CASES AND MATERIALS ch. 14 (3d ed. 1993) (as in the second edition, Professor Henkin had primary responsibility for the law of the sea);
17. P.L. Wallin (Reporter), Panel: Whose Is the Bed of the Sea?, 62 AM. SOC'Y INT'L L. PROC. 243-46 (1968);
18. Louis Henkin (Moderator), A Closer Look at Some Issues for Geneva - Oceans Policy, Marine Environment, and Fisheries, 14 COLUM. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 56-79 (1975);
19. Conference Report, The Persian/Arabian Gulf Tanker War: International Law or International Chaos, 19 OCEAN DEV. & INT'L L. 299, 308-10 (1988).
20. MINERAL RESOURCES, supra note 5.
21. Some of the same arguments set out in this article could be extended to the biological diversity of Antarctica. See, e.g., Catherine Redgwell, The Protection of the Antarctic Environment and the Ecosystem Approach, in INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 109 (Michael Bowman & Catherine Redgwell eds., 1996) [hereinafter LAW AND BIODIVERSITY];
22. Lee A. Kimball, Framework for Environmentally-Sound Development of Non-Living Resources in International Areas, in THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: LAW, POLICY, AND SCIENCE 234-47 (Alastair Couper & Edward Gold eds., 1993) [hereinafter MARINE ENVIRONMENT].
23. See Convention on Biological Diversity, done at Rio de Janeiro, June 5, 1992, reprinted in 311.L.M. 822 (1992) (entered into force Dec. 29, 1993) [hereinafter C.B.D.]. For a personal account of the negotiations leading to the Convention and subsequent events, see FIONA MCCONNELL, THE BIODIVERSITY CONVENTION: A NEGOTIATING HISTORY (1996) [hereinafter C.B.D. HISTORY].
24. For several good analyses of the Convention, see Alan E. Boyle, The Rio Convention on Biological Diversity, in LAW AND BIODIVERSITY, supra note 9, at 33;
25. Melinda Chandler, The Biodiversity Convention: Selected Issues of Interest to the International Lawyer, 4 COLO. J. INT'L ENVTL. L. & POL'Y 141 (1993);
26. Cathrine Tinker, A "New Breed" of Treaty: The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, 13 PACE ENVTL. L. REV. 191, 202 (1995).
27. See also the excellent multidisciplianry symposium on biological diversity entitled Biodiversity: Opportunities & Obligations, 28 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 613 (1995).
28. Report of the First Meeting of the COP to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Annex II, Decision 1/9, Annex, ¶ 5.3, U.N. Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/1/17 (Jan. 1995). Thus far, the C.B.D.'s Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (S.B.S.T.T.A.), established under article 25, has published two tentative reports on the issues.
29. See Report by the Executive Secretary on Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity, Note by the Secretariat, U.N. Doc. UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/2/14 (July 24, 1996) [hereinafter Report on Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity];
30. Bioprospecting of Genetic Resources of the Deep Sea-Bed, Note by the Secretariat, U.N. Doc. UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/2/15 (July 24, 1996) [hereinafter Bioprospecting of Genetic Resources].
31. Report of the Second Meeting of the COP to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Annex II, Decision II/10, U.N. Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/2/19 (Nov. 30, 1995) [hereinafter Second Meeting Report]. Decision II/10 is referred to in the Ministerial Statement adopted at COP II as the "Jakarta Mandate". Id., Annex I, ¶ 14.
32. See also Report of the First Meeting of the SBSTTA, U.N. Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/2/5 ¶¶ 65-76 (Sept. 21, 1995) [hereinafter First Meeting Report].
33. It is possible to understand biological diversity as describing an even greater number of levels of biological organization, such as: ecosystem, community, species, organism, and gene. See JEFFREY A. MCNEELY ET AL., CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 17 (1990).
34. CENTER FOR MARINE CONSERVATION, GLOBAL MARINE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: A STRATEGY FOR BUILDING CONSERVATION INTO DECISION MAKING 9-13 (Elliot A. Norse ed., 1993).
35. See also UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME, BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT 2 (V.H. Heywood ed., 1995) [hereinafter BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT]. Indeed, this three-level characterization is true of all environments and is the approach adopted by the Biodiversity Convention. See C.B.D., supra note 10, art. 2.
36. It also covers genetic variability across the same population of a species. Genetic variation within the same population varies from species to species. For example, Indian Rhinos have a high intra-population genetic diversity, while that for cheetahs is very low. See WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE ET AL., GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY: GUIDELINES FOR ACTION TO SAVE, STUDY, USE THE EARTH'S BIOTIC WEALTH SUSTAINABLY AND EQUITABLY 12 (1992) [hereinafter BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY].
37. Ecosystems within the open ocean commons can be divided into four broad categories: infaunal benthic, epibenthic, pelagic, and extreme. The infaunal benthic ecosystem comprises the area and organisms that live below the sediment-water interface of the seabed. The epibenthic ecosystem consists of the hard substratum of the seabed and the organisms that live attached thereto, or rooted to a shallow depth with most of the body of the organism projecting into the water column. The pelagic ecosystem is the water column itself and its biological communities that have little to do with the seabed. Finally, extreme ecosystems consist of boiling hydrothermal vent areas of the deep seabed and the frigid Antarctic marine environment. The description of marine ecosystems and biological communities here draws heavily on the BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT, supra note 14, and JEFFREY S. LEVINGTON, MARINE BIOLOGY: FUNCTION, BIODIVERSITY, ECOLOGY (1995).
38. Such an approach is specifically recognized in the L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, art. 61 (rules for exclusive economic zones), art. 63 (rules of straddling stocks), art. 64 (rules for highly migratory species), art. 65 (rules for marine mammals), art. 66 (anadromous stocks), art. 67 (catadromous species), arts. 117-120 (high seas).
39. See BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT, supra note 14, at 88-103.
40. See Bruce H. Robinson, Light in the Oceans' Midwaters, Sci. AM. 48 (July 1995).
41. See Anthony D'Amato & John Lawrence Hargrove, An Overview of the Problem, in WHO PROTECTS THE OCEAN?: ENVIRONMENT AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAW OF THE SEA 7-8 (1975).
42. See Report on Marine and Coastal Biodiversity, supra note 11, ¶ 6.
43. On the merits of such a legal approach, see generally Martin H. Belsky, Using Legal Principles to Promote the "Health" of an Ecosystem, 3 TULSA J. COMP. & INT'L L. 183 (1996).
44. See Lawrence Juda & Richard H. Burroughs, The Prospects for Comprehensive Ocean Management, MARINE POL'Y 23 (Jan. 1990).
45. See Arne Næss, Intrinsic Value: Will Defenders of Nature Please Rise?, in CONSERVATION BIOLOGY: THE SCIENCE OF SCARCITY AND DIVERSITY 504 (Michael E. Soulé ed., 1986).
46. For a general discussion of philosophical basis of intrinsic moral considerateness of the environment, see ANDREW DOBSON, GREEN POLITICAL THOUGHT 19-20, 48-61 (1990).
47. For a religious treatment, see Declarations on Religion and Nature of the 1986 at the Assisi Conference, reprinted in 17 ENVTL. POL'Y & L. 47 (1987).
48. For an example of an indigenous peoples' cultural point of view, see ALEXANDER J. BROWN, KEEPING THE LAND ALIVE: ABORIGINAL PEOPLE AND WILDERNESS PROTECTION IN AUSTRALIA (1992).
49. But see C.B.D., supra note 10, pmbl., ¶ 1 (parties expressing consciousness "of the intrinsic value of biological diversity and of the ecological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic values of biological diversity and its components").
50. See Dana Clark & David Downes, What Price Biodiversity? Economic Incentives and Biodiversity Conservation in the United States, 8 J. ENVTL. L. & LIT. 9, 17-19 (1996).
51. See David Freestone, The Conservation of Marine Ecosystems under International Law, in LAW AND BIODIVERSITY, supra note 9, at 94 ("the guiding agenda of the biodiversity debate was the issue of ownership and exploitation of biotechnology rather than conservation").
52. See Jon H. Goldstein, The Prospects for Using Market Incentives to Conserve Biological Diversity, 21 ENVTL. L. 985 (1991).
53. See M. D. YOUNG ET AL., REIMBURSING THE FUTURE: AN EVALUATION OF MOTIVATIONAL, VOLUNTARY, PRICE-BASED, PROPERTY-RIGHT, AND REGULATORY INCENTIVES FOR THE CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY 137 (A Report to the Biodiversity Unit of the Australian Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories, Biodiversity Series, Paper No. 9, Part I, 1996).
54. See Jeffrey A. McNeely, The Biodiversity Crisis: Challenges for Research and Management, in CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 15, 16 (Odd T. Sandlund et al. eds., 1992).
55. See generally Paul Ehrlich & Edward O. Wilson, Biodiversity Studies: Science and Policy, 253 Sci. 758 (1991).
56. See NORMAN MYRES, GAIA: AN ATLAS OF PLANET MANAGEMENT 70-99 (1984).
57. See Julie Ann Miller, Biosciences and Ecological Intergrity, 41 BIOSCIENCE 206-09 (1991).
58. See Peter Weber, Abandoned Seas: Reversing the Decline of the Oceans, WORLD-WATCH PAPER 116, 10-11 (Nov. 1993).
59. See also Jack Williams, Deep-sea Remedies[:] Scientists Seek Medicinal Aid at the Pharmasea, SAN DIEGO UNION-TRIB., July 15, 1992, at E1.
60. For a general overall assessment of the nature of ocean resources, see John E. Bardach, Economic Contributions of Environmental Uses of the Oceans: Aquaculture, Energy, Pollution, and Ocean Minerals, THE ROLE OF THE OCEANS IN THE 21ST CENTURY 621 (1995).
61. See BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY, supra note 15, at 2. It is well to keep in mind, however, what Elliot Richardson has said about similarly large claims about the value of ocean mineral resources in the 1970s. "It did not seem to occur to anyone that there was only so much nickel, copper, cobalt, and manganese to be consumed in a given year." Elliot L. Richardson, Historical Evolution of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 7 GEO. INT'L ENVTL. L. REV. 636, 642 (1995).
62. See Lyle Glowka, The Deepest of Ironies: Genetic Resources, Marine Scientific Research, and the Area, 12 OCEAN Y.B. 154, 160 (1996).
63. See also Neil Gross, Science is Commercializing Nature's Diehard Protiens, BUS. WK., Apr. 1, 1996, at 84.
64. See Jean-Pierre Levy, The International Seabed Area, in 1 A HANDBOOK ON THE NEW LAW OF THE SEA 585, 594-604 (René-Jean Dupuy & Daniel Vignes eds., 1991) [hereinafter L.O.S. HANDBOOK].
65. See WILLIAM T. BURKE, THE NEW INTERNATIONAL LAW OF FISHERIES: UNCLOS 1982 AND BEYOND 83-84 (1994) [hereinafter LAW OF FISHERIES];
66. RENÉ-JENE DUPUY, THE LAW OF THE SEA: CURRENT PROBLEMS 122-24 (1974).
67. See Associated Press, Ice that Burns Studied as an Energy Source, N. Y. TIMES, Feb. 21, 1995, at C5.
68. See Anne C. Kalicki, Earth's Rifts Pour Forth Riches, CHRISTIAN SCI. MONITOR, May 19, 1982, at 16. See also Lévy, supra note 39, at 603.
69. See BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT, supra note 14, at 394-98.
70. See H. Takada et al., Transport of Sludge-Derived Organic Pollutants in Deep-Sea Sediments at Deep Water Dump Site 106, 28 ENVTL. SCI. & TECH. 1062 (1994).
71. Indeed, a U.N.E.P. expert group concluded in 1991 that 77 percent of marine pollution comes from land-based sources. GROUP OF EXPERTS ON THE SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF MARINE POLLUTION, THE STATE OF THE OCEANS (1990).
72. See BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT, supra note 14, at 396.
73. See A.R. Flegal et al., Anthropogenic Lead in Antarctic Sea Water, 365 NATURE 242 (1993).
74. See G. Parilla et al., Rising Temperatures in the Subtropical North Atlantic Ocean over the Past Thirty Five Years, 369 NATURE 48 (1994).
75. See BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT, supra note 14, at 396.
76. See id. at 395.
77. See id.
78. See id. at 397.
79. See id. at 395-96.
80. See id. at 396. Epifauna organisms reside in the epibenthic ecosystem. See supra note 16 and accompanying text.
81. See id.
82. See HOW NATIONS BEHAVE, supra note 7, at 212-13.
83. See LAW OF FISHERIES, supra note 40, at 83-84.
84. See Wiliam McLeod Chapman, Fishery Resources in Offshore Waters, in THE LAW OF THE SEA, OFFSHORE BOUNDARIES AND ZONES 87, 93 (L. Alexander ed., 1967).
85. See D.P. O'CONNELL, 1 THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF THE SEA 19-22 (I.A. Shearer ed., 1982).
86. For a good recount of the mare liberum - mare clausum debate, see PITMAN B. POTTER, THE FREEDOM OF THE SEAS IN HISTORY, LAW AND POLITICS 57-80 (1924).
87. See HENKIN, supra note 1, at 91.
88. See, e.g., Convention Designed to Ensure the Conservation of Various Species of Wild Animals in Africa, which are Useful to Man or Inoffensive, May 19, 1900, summarized in IV INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT 1605 (Bernd Rüster & Bruno Simma eds., 1975) (emphasis added).
89. See, e.g., Convention Relative to the Preservation of Fauna and Flora in their Natural State, November 8, 1933, 172 L.N.T.S. 241; Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere, October 12, 1940,161 U.N.T.S. 193.
90. See, e.g., Protocol to Establish a Tripartite Standing Committee on Polluted Waters, April 8, 1950, 66 U.N.T.S. 285.
91. See, e.g., International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, May 12, 1954, 327 U.N.T.S. 3.
92. May 20, 1980, 33 U.S.T. 2063.
93. Id. art. I(3).
94. Id. art. II(2).
95. July 9, 1985, reprinted in 2 SELECTED MULTILATERAL TREATIES IN THE FIELD OF THE ENVIRONMENT 343 (Iwona Rummel-Bulska & Seth Osafo eds., 1991).
96. Id. at pmbl. ¶ 5.
97. See id. chs. 2-4.
98. See ANDRONICO O. ADEDE, INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW DIGEST: INSTRUMENTS FOR INTERNATIONAL RESPONSES TO PROBLEMS OF ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT 1972-1992, at 14 (1993);
99. UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT, THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS: A SURVEY OF EXISTING LEGAL INSTRUMENTS 149-301 (Peter H. Sand ed., 1992).
100. See, e.g., International Convention for Regulation of Whaling, Dec. 2, 1946, 161 U.N.T.S. 143; Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, June 12, 1972, 29 U.S.T. 441.
101. See, e.g., Protocol Concerning Protected Areas and Wild Fauna and Flora in the Eastern African Region, June 21, 1985, reprinted in MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 156 (Peter H. Sand ed., 1988).
102. See, e.g., Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific, June 12, 1976, reprinted in 1 SELECTED MULTILATERAL TREATIES IN THE FIELD OF THE ENVIRONNENT 463 (Alexandre Kiss ed., 1983);
103. Geneva Protocol Concerning Mediterranean Specially Protected Areas, April 3, 1982, reprinted in 26 INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW: MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS 982 (Wolfgang Burhenne ed., 1982). See also Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, Feb. 2, 1971, 996 U.N.T.S. 245; UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Nov. 23, 1972, 27 U.S.T. 37.
104. See, e.g. the Conventions passed for the protection of whales and antarctic seals, supra note 72.
105. See generally 2 L.O.S. HANDBOOK, supra note 39, Part 4, at 833-1331.
106. See C.B.D., supra note 10, art. 1.
107. See id. art. 15(1).
108. See Christopher D. Stone, What to Do About Biodiversity: Property Rights, Public Goods, and the Earth's Biological Riches, 68 S. CAL. L. REV. 577, 583 (1995). The C.B.D. is an explicit initial attempt to help states recoup their incremental costs of meeting their conventional obligations, even if it might not be sufficient. See C.B.D., supra note 10, art. 20(2).
109. Indeed, one of the concerns in negotiating the Convention was how to meet the claims by developing countries for new and additional funding for any environmental undertakings on their part. See C.B.D. HISTORY, supra note 10, at 30.
110. See C.B.D., supra note 10, art. 4(a).
111. See id. art. 4(b).
112. See Glowka, supra note 38, at 165.
113. See C.B.D., supra note 10, art. 5. This inherently ambiguous obligation is further weakened by the normatively vapid chapeau "as far as possible and as appropriate."
114. See id. art. 22(2).
115. This applies to both customary and conventional marine law. See Chandler, supra note 10, at 153. See also L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, art. 237(2).
116. See L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, art. 87.
117. See Bioprospecting of Genetic Resources, supra note 11, ¶12; William V. Dunlap, Environmental Jurisdiction on the High Seas: The Special Case of the Arctic Ocean, in THE PEACEFUL MANAGEMENT OF TRANSBOUNDARY RESOURCES 319, 324 (Gerald H. Blake et al. eds., 1995). Dissatisfaction with article 22 in other respects caused the governments of Chile, Colombia and India to issue declarations appended to the Final Act of the Conference, reprinted in C.B.D. HISTORY, supra note 10, Annex I.
118. See L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, art. 192.
119. See the detailed discussion of international and regional environmental and fisheries agreements that work to promote conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity in Freestone, supra note 28, at 95-102.
120. See Final Report of COP II, Decision II/10, U.N. Doc. UNEP/COP/2/5, ¶ 7 (Nov. 30, 1995).
121. See Report on Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity, Annex 4, Recommendation I/8, supra note 11.
122. U.N. Conference on the Human Environment, June 16, 1972, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.-48/14/Rev. 1, at 5.
123. C.B.D., supra note 10, art. 3 (emphasis added).
124. See C.B.D. HISTORY, supra note 10, at 89, 98.
125. See Chandler, supra note 10, at 153. See also L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, arts. 17-19, 38, 45, 52.
126. See Chandler, supra note 10, at 153.
127. See HOW NATIONS BEHAVE, supra note 7, at 212.
128. See Jonathan I. Charney, The Marine Environment and the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 28 INT'L LAW. 879, 881-82 (1994).
129. See L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, pmbl., ¶ 4.
130. See id., pmbl., ¶ 8.
131. See Charney, supra note 99, at 882. But see Vincenzo Starce, Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: An Appraisal, 5 ITALIAN Y.B. INT'L L. 52, 53-56 (1980-81) (discussing the "scarcity" of provisions for the protection and preservation of natural resources, ecosystems and marine flora and fauna, as opposed to economically-driven conservation provisions).
132. See Moira L. McConnell & Edgar Gold, The Modern Law of the Sea: Framework for the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment?, 23 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 83, 103 (1991); Charney, supra note 99, at 882.
133. See L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, arts. 192-237.
134. See L.D. Guruswamy, Environmental Protection and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, LLOYD'S MAR. & COM. L.Q. 705, 706 (1983).
135. See L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, art. 192.
136. See id. arts. 194-196.
137. See id. art. 194(5).
138. See M.W. Zacher & James G. McConnell, Down to the Sea with Stakes: The Evolving Law of the Sea and the Future of the Deep Seabed Regime. 21 OCEAN DEV. & INT'L L. 71, 73 (1990).
139. See L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, art. 2.
140. See id. art. 77.
141. See id art. 56.
142. See id. art. 87.
143. See id. art. 1.1(1).
144. See id. arts. 136 and 137.
145. See Law of the Sea: The Convention Enters into Force, A.S.I.L. PROC. 451, 469 (1995) (quoting Ann L. Hollick's comments on panel).
146. See Martin H. Belsky, Management of Large Marine Ecosystems: Developing a New Rule of Customary International Law, 22 SAN DIEGO L. REV. 733, 738-39 (1985).
147. See LAW OF FISHERIES, supra note 40, at 83-84.
148. See L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, art. 87(2). See also Fisheries Jurisdiction (U.K. v. Ice.), 1974 I.C.J. 3, at 22, 29 (July 23).
149. See OSCAR SCHACHTER, INTERNATIONAL LAW IN THEORY AND PRACTICE 285 (1991).
150. See id.
151. See Glowka, supra note 38, at 168-69.
152. See id.
153. See L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, art. 87.
154. See id. art. 116.
155. See id.
156. See id. art. 117.
157. See id. art. 118.
158. See Shigeru Oda, Sharing Ocean Resources - Unresolved Issues in the Law of the Sea, 3 N.Y.L. SCH. J. INT'L & COMP. L. 1, 12-13 (1981).
159. See generally Evelyne Meltzer, Global Overview of Straddling and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks: The Nonsustainable Nature of High Seas Fisheries, 20 OCEAN DEV. & INT'L L. 255 (1994).
160. See Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, art. 6, U.N. Doc. A/CONF. 164/37 (1995) [hereinafter L.O.S. Fishing Agreement], reprinted in 34 I.L.M. 1542 (1995).
161. See Charlotte de Fontaubert, The United Nations Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks: Another Step in the Implementation of the Law of the Sea Convention, 12 OCEAN Y.B. 82, 85 (1996).
162. See id.
163. See L.O.S. Fishing Agreement, supra note 131, art. 3(1).
164. Id. art. 5(g).
165. See de Fontaubert, supra note 132, at 85.
166. L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, art. 194(5) (emphasis added).
167. See Freestone, supra note 28, at 95-102.
168. See K. Gjerde, The Law of the Sea, in THE OCEANS AND ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY: SHARED US/USSR PERSPECTIVES 233 (J. Broadus & R. Vartanov eds., 1994).
169. See Alan E. Boyle, Marine Pollution under the Law of the Sea Convention, 79 AM. J. INT'L L. 347, 353-54 (1985);
170. PATRICIA W. BIRNIE & ALAN E. BOYLE, INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE ENVIRONMENT 256 (1992).
171. Of course, not all commentators agree on the correct interpretation of these articles. On the variety of interpretations, see BIRNIE & BOYLE, supra note 140, at 256, n.16 (1992).
172. S.S. Wimbledon Case, 1923 P.C.I.J. (ser. A), No. 1, at 25.
173. See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, May 23, 1969, art. 30(2), 1155 U.N.T.S. 331.
174. See Second Meeting Report, supra note 12, ¶ 12.
175. Presumably the estimated value of these genetic resources and the Convention's focus on protecting property and commercial rights to genetic and biological material had something to do with it. See supra note 28 and accompanying text. See generally items cited in the bibliography of Bioprospecting of Genetic Resources, supra note 11.
176. See Second Meeting Report, supra note 12, ¶ 14.
177. Generally, marine biological diversity, including deep seabed genetic resources, would remain outside of the regime set up to govern the international seabed area because of the exclusive definition of resources to be internationalized under the L.O.S. Convention. See L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, art. 133 (resources to be internationalized are limited to "all solid, liquid or gaseous mineral resources in situ in the Area at or beneath the sea-bed including polymetallic nodules"). Accordingly, the principle of freedom would apply. Id. art. 87.
178. See also First Meeting Report, supra note 12, ¶ 75.
179. See Donald K. Anton, The Global Environment and the Public Interest, 13 ENVTL. & PLANNING L.J. 269 (1996).
180. See L.O.S. Convention, supra note 6, pt. 11.
181. See Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, July 28, 1994, U.N. Doc. A/RES/48/263 (Aug. 17, 1994), reprinted in 33 I.L.M. 1309 (1994).
182. See Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development: Agenda 21, Annex II, chs. 15 & 17, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1 (vol. I) (1993).
183. See C.B.D., supra note 10, art. 28.
184. See id. art. 29.
185. See UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME, GOVERNING COUNCIL: PROCEEDINGS OF THE GOVERNING COUNCIL AT ITS FOURTEENTH SESSION, Annex I at 58, U.N. Doc. UNEP/GC.14/26 (1987) (Item 14/26, Rationalization of International Conventions on Biological Diversity).