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Volumn 94, Issue 7, 1996, Pages 2229-2269

Positivism and the separation of law and economics

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EID: 26044478675     PISSN: 00262234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/1289820     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (16)

References (112)
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    • The Ethical and Political Basis of the Efficiency Norm in Common Law Adjudication
    • See, e.g., Richard A. Posner, The Ethical and Political Basis of the Efficiency Norm in Common Law Adjudication, 8 HOFSTRA L. REV. 487 (1980).
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    • For a classic defense of economic efficiency as a criterion for public policy, see Thomas C. Schelling, Economic Reasoning and the Ethics of Policy, PUB. INTEREST, Spring 1981, at 37.
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    • The Methodology of Positive Economics
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    • Positive Economics and All That
    • Typical invocations of Friedman's methodological orthodoxy in the law and economics literature include Fred S. McChesney, Positive Economics and All That, 61 GEO. WASH. L. REV. 272 (1992)
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    • The Economic Approach to Law
    • See also Richard A. Posner, The Economic Approach to Law, 53 TEXAS L. REV. 757, 768 (1975) ("It is a general, and in my opinion deplorable, characteristic of legal scholarship that normative analysis vastly preponderates over positive. Academic lawyers are in general happier preaching reform of the legal system than trying to understand how it operates. This is true of many lawyers having a bent for economics . . . and of those economists who view the legal system from the dizzy heights of theoretical welfare economics. The result of the preference for normative analysis is that our knowledge of the legal system is remarkably meager, incomplete, and unsystematic - a situation which, ironically, makes it very difficult to propose sound reforms of the system.").
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    • As Friedman himself allowed: Confusion between positive and normative economics is to some extent inevitable. The subject matter of economics is regarded by almost everyone as vitally important to himself and within the range of his own experience and competence; it is the source of continuous and extensive controversy and the occasion for frequent legislation. . . . Laymen and experts alike are inevitably tempted to shape positive conclusions to fit strongly held normative preconceptions and to reject positive conclusions if their normative implications - or what are said to be their normative implications - are unpalatable. FRIEDMAN, supra note 7, at 3-4.
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    • Too Good to Be True: The Positive Economic Theory of Law
    • J.M. Balkin, Too Good To Be True: The Positive Economic Theory of Law, 87 COLUM. L. REV. 1447 (1987)
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    • Consumption Theory, Production Theory, and Ideology in the Coase Theorem
    • Mark Kelman, Consumption Theory, Production Theory, and Ideology in the Coase Theorem, 52 S. CAL. L. REV. 669 (1979).
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    • Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals
    • H.L.A. Hart, Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals, 71 HARV. L. REV. 593 (1958).
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    • Positivism and Fidelity to Law - A Reply to Professor Hart
    • See Lon L. Fuller, Positivism and Fidelity to Law - A Reply to Professor Hart, 71 HARV. L. REV. 630 (1958).
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    • 2d ed.
    • In addition, a distinctive aspect of Friedman's methodology is his reliance on falsificationism: the philosophical claim, set forth most prominently by Karl Popper, that the only legitimate way to test a scientific theory is to try to disprove it through empirical observations. On this view, if a particular theory withstands repeated attempts at disproof, it has been verified; it is this argument that leads Friedman to his controversial conclusion that the realism of a theory's assumptions is irrelevant to its usefulness. See MARK BLAUG, THE METHODOLOGY OF ECONOMICS, OR HOW ECONOMISTS EXPLAIN 83-111 (2d ed. 1992).
    • (1992) The Methodology of Economics, or How Economists Explain , pp. 83-111
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    • See, e.g., Leff, supra note 1, at 454-55 ("I will put the current situation as sharply and nastily as possible: there is today no way of 'proving' that napalming babies is bad except by asserting it (in a louder and louder voice), or by defining it as so, early in one's game, and then later slipping it through, in a whisper, as a conclusion. Now this is a fact of modern intellectual life so well and painfully known as to be one of the few which is simultaneously horrifying and banal.").
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    • Positivism in Law & Economics
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    • 9th ed. (emphasis in original)
    • RICHARD G. LIPSEY ET AL., ECONOMICS 14, 16 (9th ed. 1990) (emphasis in original).
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    • 11th ed. (emphasis in original)
    • PAUL A. SAMUELSON, ECONOMICS 590-91 (11th ed. 1980) (emphasis in original);
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    • 2d ed.
    • ("Finally, many disputes among economists are not scientific disputes at all. . . . While economists can contribute the best theoretical and factual knowledge there is on a particular issue, the final decision on policy questions often rests either on information that is not currently available or on tastes and ethical opinions about which people differ (the things we call 'value judgments'), or on both."); STANLEY FISCHER ET AL., INTRODUCTION TO MICROECONOMICS 4-7 (2d ed. 1988) (writing in a subsection entitled "Is Economics a Science?");
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    • LEE S. FRIEDMAN, MICROECONOMIC POLICY ANALYSIS 11-12 (1984) (stating that positive questions depend on facts while normative questions depend on discretionary value judgments);
    • (1984) Microeconomic Policy Analysis , pp. 11-12
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    • 5th ed.
    • J.P. GOULD & C.E. FERGUSON, MICROECONOMIC THEORY 3 (5th ed. 1980) ("The business of an economist is a positive, not a normative, one. That is, given a social objective, the economist can analyze the problem and suggest the most efficient means by which to attain the desired end.");
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    • 2d ed.
    • JACK HIRSHLEIFER, PRICE THEORY AND APPLICATIONS 14 (2d ed. 1980) ("Given the social objective aimed at (with which they might in fact personally disagree), scientific economists can use their knowledge of reality to analyze the problem and suggest efficient means for attaining the desired end. This book will touch upon many policy issues, but always emphasizing the positive point of view.");
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    • DONALD N. MCCLOSKEY, THE APPLIED THEORY OF PRICE 2 (1982) ("The disagreements that remain about markets often turn on disagreements about the moral desirability of some event, not its occurrence. Economists can agree on 'positive' economics (i.e., what is), yet disagree on 'normative' economics (i.e., what should be).");
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    • 3d ed.
    • WALTER NICHOLSON, MICROECONOMIC THEORY 11 (3d ed. 1985) ("A final feature central to most economic models is the attempt to differentiate carefully between 'positive' and 'normative' questions. . . . Although this book generally will avoid philosophical investigations of such difficult issues, it does take a rather definite position by adopting a primarily positive orientation.");
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    • ANDREW R. SCHOTTER, MICROECONOMICS: A MODERN APPROACH 4 (1994) (distinguishing between positive and normative statements in economics and stating that only the latter are "objective and verifiable");
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    • 2d ed.
    • and, of course, the master himself, MILTON FRIEDMAN, PRICE THEORY 7 (2d ed. 1976) ("Economics is sometimes divided into two parts: positive economics and normative economics. The former deals with how the economic problem is solved; the latter deals with how the economic problem should be solved. For example, the effects of price or rent control on the distribution of income are problems of positive economics. On the other hand, the desirability of these effects on income distribution is a problem of normative economics. This course deals solely with positive economics.") (emphasis in original).
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    • See United States v. Carroll Towing Co., 159 F.2d 169 (2d Cir. 1947)
    • See United States v. Carroll Towing Co., 159 F.2d 169 (2d Cir. 1947). For a fuller account of the positive explanation in the text, see RICHARD A. POSNER, TORT LAW: CASES AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 1-9 (1982).
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    • Strict Liability Versus Negligence
    • For an analysis that takes these complications into account, see Steven Shavell, Strict Liability Versus Negligence, 9 J. LEGAL STUD. 1 (1980).
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    • note
    • Economists who identify with the Chicago school tend to endorse efficiency as an exclusive goal, and those who do not tend to endorse efficiency in combination with other goals, most commonly distributional equity. Economists who emphasize liberty over utility tend to favor the criterion of Pareto superiority, which requires that those who gain from efficient behavior compensate the losers; economists who emphasize utility over liberty tend to favor the Kaldor-Hicks criterion, which holds it sufficient that the gainers gain more than the losers lose.
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    • See POSNER, supra note 20
    • See POSNER, supra note 20.
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    • See, e.g., sources cited supra notes 17-18
    • See, e.g., sources cited supra notes 17-18.
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    • note
    • Perhaps, ironically enough, this is because of the normative overtones of its historical use in the natural sciences over the last two centuries.
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    • Trial by Mathematics: Precision and Ritual in the Legal Process
    • Cf. Laurence H. Tribe, Trial by Mathematics: Precision and Ritual in the Legal Process, 84 HARV. L. REV. 1329 (1971) (arguing that the apparent precision of mathematical models misleads those who use them into believing that all relevant considerations have been included).
    • (1971) Harv. L. Rev. , vol.84 , pp. 1329
    • Tribe, L.H.1
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    • A. Silvey trans., North-Holland Publishing Co.
    • See, e.g., E. MALINVAUD, LECTURES ON MICROECONOMIC THEORY 12-42 (A. Silvey trans., North-Holland Publishing Co. 1972) (1969);
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    • Malinvaud, E.1
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    • note
    • See, e.g., GOULD & FERGUSON, supra note 18 (presenting efficiency as part of positive economics); NICHOLSON, supra note 18 (presenting efficiency as part of normative economics). For discussions of this inconsistency, see BLAUG, supra note 14, at 112-34; Hovenkamp, supra note 16, at 822-26.
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    • Some Reasons for the Maximin Criterion
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    • Objectivity in Legal Judgment
    • For an explanation of this concept, with an emphasis on legal applications, see Heidi Li Feldman, Objectivity in Legal Judgment, 92 MICH. L. REV. 1187 (1994). Feldman, who maintains that most legal categories depend on such blend concepts, offers several examples, including "rude" (carrying a negative evaluation, though not in all circumstances), "loyal" (carrying a positive evaluation, though not in all circumstances), and "negligent" (carrying a negative evaluation in all the contexts that lawyers care about).
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    • note
    • To be fair, those economists who describe efficiency analysis as positive economics are not wrong in principle. Instead, they are simply insensitive to interpretation and to culture, and have failed to realize that the context they are thinking of is not the usual one. It is possible to discuss efficiency from an external perspective; some critics of law and economics do it regularly. If economists wish to talk about efficiency in a nonstandard way, they may be able to, but will have to extricate themselves from an evaluative context and make clear that they are engaging in specialized discourse.
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    • note
    • On the other hand, the example is an intentionally subversive one, for it encourages students to consider, specifically, whether this is really what we mean by piety, and generally, whether there are important values that cannot be captured fairly by the deliberate pursuit of an end goal. In this regard, see infra Part IV.
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    • Economic Analysis as a Potentially Defective Product: A Buyer's Guide to Posner's Economic Analysis of Law
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    • cf. A.C. Pigou, THE ECONOMICS OF WELFARE 89 (1920) ("[T]he old law of diminishing utility thus leads securely to the proposition: Any cause which increases the absolute share of real income in the hands of the poor, provided that it does not lead to a contraction in the size of the national dividend . . . will in general, increase economic welfare.").
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    • Were the Ordinalists Wrong about Welfare Economics?
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    • A Reformulation of Certain Aspects of Welfare Economics
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    • ARJO KLAMER, CONVERSATIONS WITH ECONOMISTS 52 (1983) (emphasis omitted). This book, which presents interviews with a number of leading modern macroeconomists, offers an excellent and rare window on the methodological culture of professional economics.
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    • The Path of the Law
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    • Langdell's Orthodoxy
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    • Law & Geometry: Legal Science from Leibniz to Langdell
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    • See Fuller, supra note 12, at 632-33, 644-46, 649-61; Hart, supra note 11, at 615-21
    • See Fuller, supra note 12, at 632-33, 644-46, 649-61; Hart, supra note 11, at 615-21.
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    • See Hart, supra note 11, at 620-21.
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    • See Fuller, supra note 12, at 649-55
    • See Fuller, supra note 12, at 649-55.
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    • See, e.g., RICHARD A. POSNER, THE PROBLEMS OF JURISPRUDENCE 228-39 (1990) (arguing that the question whether the Nuremberg judgments were lawful is meaningless).
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    • Penelope A. Bulloch & Joseph Raz eds., 2d ed.
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    • University of Okla. Press Leff, supra note 1
    • No originality is intended here; the following story is thoroughly conventional and has been told well many times before. See, e.g., WILLIAM TWINING, KARL LLEWELLYN AND THE REALIST MOVEMENT (University of Okla. Press 1985) (1973); Leff, supra note 1;
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    • Neutral Principles in the 1950's
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    • The Decline of Law as an Autonomous Discipline: 1962-1987
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    • See LLEWELLYN, supra note 45.
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    • See HART & SACKS, supra note 45.
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    • Toward Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law
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    • A Comment on the Jurisprudence of the Uniform Commercial Code
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    • Form and Substance in Private Law Adjudication
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    • Legal Formality
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    • Hart, supra note 11, at 619-20
    • Hart, supra note 11, at 619-20.


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.