-
1
-
-
0010617114
-
Economic Analysis of Law: Some Realism about Nominalism
-
See, e.g., Arthur Allen Leff, Economic Analysis of Law: Some Realism About Nominalism, 60 VA. L. REV. 451 (1974).
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Va. L. Rev.
, vol.60
, pp. 451
-
-
Leff, A.A.1
-
2
-
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0348069435
-
Choice and Utility
-
See, e.g., Mark Kelman, Choice and Utility, 1979 WIS. L. REV. 769;
-
Wis. L. Rev.
, vol.1979
, pp. 769
-
-
Kelman, M.1
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3
-
-
0007187957
-
Slinging Arrows at Democracy: Social Choice Theory, Value Pluralism, and Democratic Politics
-
Richard H. Pildes & Elizabeth S. Anderson, Slinging Arrows at Democracy: Social Choice Theory, Value Pluralism, and Democratic Politics, 90 COLUM. L. REV. 2121 (1990).
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Colum. L. Rev.
, vol.90
, pp. 2121
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Pildes, R.H.1
Anderson, E.S.2
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4
-
-
0042105631
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Law and Economics: Science or Politics?
-
See, e.g., Morton J. Horwitz, Law and Economics: Science or Politics?, 8 HOFSTRA L. REV. 905 (1980).
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Hofstra L. Rev.
, vol.8
, pp. 905
-
-
Horwitz, M.J.1
-
5
-
-
0039685997
-
Symposium on Efficiency as a Legal Concern
-
See, e.g., Symposium on Efficiency as a Legal Concern, 8 HOFSTRA L. REV. 485 (1980);
-
(1980)
Hofstra L. Rev.
, vol.8
, pp. 485
-
-
-
6
-
-
26044462323
-
A Response to the Efficiency Symposium
-
A Response to the Efficiency Symposium, 8 HOFSTRA L. REV. 811 (1980).
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(1980)
Hofstra L. Rev.
, vol.8
, pp. 811
-
-
-
7
-
-
0010615039
-
Economics and Law: Two Cultures in Tension
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See James Boyd White, Economics and Law: Two Cultures in Tension, 54 TENN. L. REV. 161 (1987).
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Tenn. L. Rev.
, vol.54
, pp. 161
-
-
White, J.B.1
-
8
-
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0001630127
-
The Ethical and Political Basis of the Efficiency Norm in Common Law Adjudication
-
See, e.g., Richard A. Posner, The Ethical and Political Basis of the Efficiency Norm in Common Law Adjudication, 8 HOFSTRA L. REV. 487 (1980).
-
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Hofstra L. Rev.
, vol.8
, pp. 487
-
-
Posner, R.A.1
-
9
-
-
84921105407
-
Economic Reasoning and the Ethics of Policy
-
Spring
-
For a classic defense of economic efficiency as a criterion for public policy, see Thomas C. Schelling, Economic Reasoning and the Ethics of Policy, PUB. INTEREST, Spring 1981, at 37.
-
(1981)
Pub. Interest
, pp. 37
-
-
Schelling, T.C.1
-
10
-
-
0003206208
-
Why the Legal System Is Less Efficient than the Income Tax in Redistributing Income
-
For a pragmatic argument limited to the field of law and economics, see Louis Kaplow & Steven Shavell, Why the Legal System Is Less Efficient than the Income Tax in Redistributing Income, 23 J. LEGAL STUD. 667 (1994).
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J. Legal Stud.
, vol.23
, pp. 667
-
-
Kaplow, L.1
Shavell, S.2
-
11
-
-
84926996743
-
The Methodology of Positive Economics
-
See MILTON FRIEDMAN, The Methodology of Positive Economics, in ESSAYS IN POSITIVE ECONOMICS 3 (1953).
-
(1953)
Essays in Positive Economics
, pp. 3
-
-
Friedman, M.1
-
12
-
-
0040963719
-
Positive Economics and All That
-
Typical invocations of Friedman's methodological orthodoxy in the law and economics literature include Fred S. McChesney, Positive Economics and All That, 61 GEO. WASH. L. REV. 272 (1992)
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(1992)
Geo. Wash. L. Rev.
, vol.61
, pp. 272
-
-
McChesney, F.S.1
-
14
-
-
0042513871
-
Some Notes on Methodology in Law and Economics
-
Paul H. Rubin, Some Notes on Methodology in Law and Economics, 7 RES. L. & ECON. 29 (1985).
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Res. L. & Econ.
, vol.7
, pp. 29
-
-
Rubin, P.H.1
-
15
-
-
40949144194
-
The Economic Approach to Law
-
See also Richard A. Posner, The Economic Approach to Law, 53 TEXAS L. REV. 757, 768 (1975) ("It is a general, and in my opinion deplorable, characteristic of legal scholarship that normative analysis vastly preponderates over positive. Academic lawyers are in general happier preaching reform of the legal system than trying to understand how it operates. This is true of many lawyers having a bent for economics . . . and of those economists who view the legal system from the dizzy heights of theoretical welfare economics. The result of the preference for normative analysis is that our knowledge of the legal system is remarkably meager, incomplete, and unsystematic - a situation which, ironically, makes it very difficult to propose sound reforms of the system.").
-
(1975)
Texas L. Rev.
, vol.53
, pp. 757
-
-
Posner, R.A.1
-
16
-
-
26044477992
-
-
note
-
As Friedman himself allowed: Confusion between positive and normative economics is to some extent inevitable. The subject matter of economics is regarded by almost everyone as vitally important to himself and within the range of his own experience and competence; it is the source of continuous and extensive controversy and the occasion for frequent legislation. . . . Laymen and experts alike are inevitably tempted to shape positive conclusions to fit strongly held normative preconceptions and to reject positive conclusions if their normative implications - or what are said to be their normative implications - are unpalatable. FRIEDMAN, supra note 7, at 3-4.
-
-
-
-
18
-
-
84935142633
-
Too Good to Be True: The Positive Economic Theory of Law
-
J.M. Balkin, Too Good To Be True: The Positive Economic Theory of Law, 87 COLUM. L. REV. 1447 (1987)
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Colum. L. Rev.
, vol.87
, pp. 1447
-
-
Balkin, J.M.1
-
20
-
-
0005195115
-
Consumption Theory, Production Theory, and Ideology in the Coase Theorem
-
Mark Kelman, Consumption Theory, Production Theory, and Ideology in the Coase Theorem, 52 S. CAL. L. REV. 669 (1979).
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S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.52
, pp. 669
-
-
Kelman, M.1
-
21
-
-
0000580092
-
Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals
-
H.L.A. Hart, Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals, 71 HARV. L. REV. 593 (1958).
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Harv. L. Rev.
, vol.71
, pp. 593
-
-
Hart, H.L.A.1
-
22
-
-
0000842517
-
Positivism and Fidelity to Law - A Reply to Professor Hart
-
See Lon L. Fuller, Positivism and Fidelity to Law - A Reply to Professor Hart, 71 HARV. L. REV. 630 (1958).
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Harv. L. Rev.
, vol.71
, pp. 630
-
-
Fuller, L.L.1
-
24
-
-
0003431416
-
-
2d ed.
-
In addition, a distinctive aspect of Friedman's methodology is his reliance on falsificationism: the philosophical claim, set forth most prominently by Karl Popper, that the only legitimate way to test a scientific theory is to try to disprove it through empirical observations. On this view, if a particular theory withstands repeated attempts at disproof, it has been verified; it is this argument that leads Friedman to his controversial conclusion that the realism of a theory's assumptions is irrelevant to its usefulness. See MARK BLAUG, THE METHODOLOGY OF ECONOMICS, OR HOW ECONOMISTS EXPLAIN 83-111 (2d ed. 1992).
-
(1992)
The Methodology of Economics, or How Economists Explain
, pp. 83-111
-
-
Blaug, M.1
-
25
-
-
26044483930
-
-
note
-
See, e.g., Leff, supra note 1, at 454-55 ("I will put the current situation as sharply and nastily as possible: there is today no way of 'proving' that napalming babies is bad except by asserting it (in a louder and louder voice), or by defining it as so, early in one's game, and then later slipping it through, in a whisper, as a conclusion. Now this is a fact of modern intellectual life so well and painfully known as to be one of the few which is simultaneously horrifying and banal.").
-
-
-
-
26
-
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84930559705
-
Positivism in Law & Economics
-
See Herbert Hovenkamp, Positivism in Law & Economics, 78 CAL. L. REV. 815 (1990).
-
(1990)
Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.78
, pp. 815
-
-
Hovenkamp, H.1
-
27
-
-
0040650611
-
-
9th ed. (emphasis in original)
-
RICHARD G. LIPSEY ET AL., ECONOMICS 14, 16 (9th ed. 1990) (emphasis in original).
-
(1990)
Economics
, pp. 14
-
-
Lipsey, R.G.1
-
28
-
-
0003644676
-
-
11th ed. (emphasis in original)
-
PAUL A. SAMUELSON, ECONOMICS 590-91 (11th ed. 1980) (emphasis in original);
-
(1980)
Economics
, pp. 590-591
-
-
Samuelson, P.A.1
-
30
-
-
0346671840
-
-
2d ed.
-
("Finally, many disputes among economists are not scientific disputes at all. . . . While economists can contribute the best theoretical and factual knowledge there is on a particular issue, the final decision on policy questions often rests either on information that is not currently available or on tastes and ethical opinions about which people differ (the things we call 'value judgments'), or on both."); STANLEY FISCHER ET AL., INTRODUCTION TO MICROECONOMICS 4-7 (2d ed. 1988) (writing in a subsection entitled "Is Economics a Science?");
-
(1988)
Introduction to Microeconomics
, pp. 4-7
-
-
Fischer, S.1
-
31
-
-
0004189541
-
-
LEE S. FRIEDMAN, MICROECONOMIC POLICY ANALYSIS 11-12 (1984) (stating that positive questions depend on facts while normative questions depend on discretionary value judgments);
-
(1984)
Microeconomic Policy Analysis
, pp. 11-12
-
-
Friedman, L.S.1
-
32
-
-
0004211591
-
-
5th ed.
-
J.P. GOULD & C.E. FERGUSON, MICROECONOMIC THEORY 3 (5th ed. 1980) ("The business of an economist is a positive, not a normative, one. That is, given a social objective, the economist can analyze the problem and suggest the most efficient means by which to attain the desired end.");
-
(1980)
Microeconomic Theory
, pp. 3
-
-
Gould, J.P.1
Ferguson, C.E.2
-
33
-
-
0003635544
-
-
2d ed.
-
JACK HIRSHLEIFER, PRICE THEORY AND APPLICATIONS 14 (2d ed. 1980) ("Given the social objective aimed at (with which they might in fact personally disagree), scientific economists can use their knowledge of reality to analyze the problem and suggest efficient means for attaining the desired end. This book will touch upon many policy issues, but always emphasizing the positive point of view.");
-
(1980)
Price Theory and Applications
, pp. 14
-
-
Hirshleifer, J.1
-
34
-
-
0004021555
-
-
DONALD N. MCCLOSKEY, THE APPLIED THEORY OF PRICE 2 (1982) ("The disagreements that remain about markets often turn on disagreements about the moral desirability of some event, not its occurrence. Economists can agree on 'positive' economics (i.e., what is), yet disagree on 'normative' economics (i.e., what should be).");
-
(1982)
The Applied Theory of Price
, pp. 2
-
-
Mccloskey, D.N.1
-
35
-
-
0004230327
-
-
3d ed.
-
WALTER NICHOLSON, MICROECONOMIC THEORY 11 (3d ed. 1985) ("A final feature central to most economic models is the attempt to differentiate carefully between 'positive' and 'normative' questions. . . . Although this book generally will avoid philosophical investigations of such difficult issues, it does take a rather definite position by adopting a primarily positive orientation.");
-
(1985)
Microeconomic Theory
, pp. 11
-
-
Nicholson, W.1
-
36
-
-
0038078149
-
-
ANDREW R. SCHOTTER, MICROECONOMICS: A MODERN APPROACH 4 (1994) (distinguishing between positive and normative statements in economics and stating that only the latter are "objective and verifiable");
-
(1994)
Microeconomics: A Modern Approach
, pp. 4
-
-
Schotter, A.R.1
-
37
-
-
0003543670
-
-
2d ed.
-
and, of course, the master himself, MILTON FRIEDMAN, PRICE THEORY 7 (2d ed. 1976) ("Economics is sometimes divided into two parts: positive economics and normative economics. The former deals with how the economic problem is solved; the latter deals with how the economic problem should be solved. For example, the effects of price or rent control on the distribution of income are problems of positive economics. On the other hand, the desirability of these effects on income distribution is a problem of normative economics. This course deals solely with positive economics.") (emphasis in original).
-
(1976)
Price Theory
, pp. 7
-
-
Friedman, M.1
-
39
-
-
0011030142
-
-
See United States v. Carroll Towing Co., 159 F.2d 169 (2d Cir. 1947)
-
See United States v. Carroll Towing Co., 159 F.2d 169 (2d Cir. 1947). For a fuller account of the positive explanation in the text, see RICHARD A. POSNER, TORT LAW: CASES AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 1-9 (1982).
-
(1982)
Tort Law: Cases and Economic Analysis
, pp. 1-9
-
-
Posner, R.A.1
-
40
-
-
0002775690
-
Strict Liability Versus Negligence
-
For an analysis that takes these complications into account, see Steven Shavell, Strict Liability Versus Negligence, 9 J. LEGAL STUD. 1 (1980).
-
(1980)
J. Legal Stud.
, vol.9
, pp. 1
-
-
Shavell, S.1
-
41
-
-
26044442386
-
-
note
-
Economists who identify with the Chicago school tend to endorse efficiency as an exclusive goal, and those who do not tend to endorse efficiency in combination with other goals, most commonly distributional equity. Economists who emphasize liberty over utility tend to favor the criterion of Pareto superiority, which requires that those who gain from efficient behavior compensate the losers; economists who emphasize utility over liberty tend to favor the Kaldor-Hicks criterion, which holds it sufficient that the gainers gain more than the losers lose.
-
-
-
-
42
-
-
26044464913
-
-
See POSNER, supra note 20
-
See POSNER, supra note 20.
-
-
-
-
43
-
-
26044445099
-
-
See, e.g., sources cited supra notes 17-18
-
See, e.g., sources cited supra notes 17-18.
-
-
-
-
45
-
-
26044468259
-
-
note
-
Perhaps, ironically enough, this is because of the normative overtones of its historical use in the natural sciences over the last two centuries.
-
-
-
-
47
-
-
0000823710
-
Trial by Mathematics: Precision and Ritual in the Legal Process
-
Cf. Laurence H. Tribe, Trial by Mathematics: Precision and Ritual in the Legal Process, 84 HARV. L. REV. 1329 (1971) (arguing that the apparent precision of mathematical models misleads those who use them into believing that all relevant considerations have been included).
-
(1971)
Harv. L. Rev.
, vol.84
, pp. 1329
-
-
Tribe, L.H.1
-
48
-
-
0003440733
-
-
A. Silvey trans., North-Holland Publishing Co.
-
See, e.g., E. MALINVAUD, LECTURES ON MICROECONOMIC THEORY 12-42 (A. Silvey trans., North-Holland Publishing Co. 1972) (1969);
-
(1969)
Lectures on Microeconomic Theory
, pp. 12-42
-
-
Malinvaud, E.1
-
50
-
-
26044445370
-
-
note
-
See, e.g., GOULD & FERGUSON, supra note 18 (presenting efficiency as part of positive economics); NICHOLSON, supra note 18 (presenting efficiency as part of normative economics). For discussions of this inconsistency, see BLAUG, supra note 14, at 112-34; Hovenkamp, supra note 16, at 822-26.
-
-
-
-
51
-
-
0344413868
-
Some Reasons for the Maximin Criterion
-
See John Rawls, Some Reasons for the Maximin Criterion, 64 AM. ECON. REV. 141 (1974).
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Am. Econ. Rev.
, vol.64
, pp. 141
-
-
Rawls, J.1
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52
-
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0039062710
-
Objectivity in Legal Judgment
-
For an explanation of this concept, with an emphasis on legal applications, see Heidi Li Feldman, Objectivity in Legal Judgment, 92 MICH. L. REV. 1187 (1994). Feldman, who maintains that most legal categories depend on such blend concepts, offers several examples, including "rude" (carrying a negative evaluation, though not in all circumstances), "loyal" (carrying a positive evaluation, though not in all circumstances), and "negligent" (carrying a negative evaluation in all the contexts that lawyers care about).
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(1994)
Mich. L. Rev.
, vol.92
, pp. 1187
-
-
Feldman, H.L.1
-
53
-
-
26044444806
-
-
note
-
To be fair, those economists who describe efficiency analysis as positive economics are not wrong in principle. Instead, they are simply insensitive to interpretation and to culture, and have failed to realize that the context they are thinking of is not the usual one. It is possible to discuss efficiency from an external perspective; some critics of law and economics do it regularly. If economists wish to talk about efficiency in a nonstandard way, they may be able to, but will have to extricate themselves from an evaluative context and make clear that they are engaging in specialized discourse.
-
-
-
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54
-
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26044468547
-
-
note
-
On the other hand, the example is an intentionally subversive one, for it encourages students to consider, specifically, whether this is really what we mean by piety, and generally, whether there are important values that cannot be captured fairly by the deliberate pursuit of an end goal. In this regard, see infra Part IV.
-
-
-
-
57
-
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26044477059
-
Lerner's Contribution to Economics
-
Tibor Scitovsky, Lerner's Contribution to Economics, 22 J. ECON. LITERATURE 1547 (1984).
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J. Econ. Literature
, vol.22
, pp. 1547
-
-
Scitovsky, T.1
-
58
-
-
85017401314
-
A Confusion of Economists?
-
See FRIEDMAN, supra note 7, at 5-6; sources cited supra notes 17-18 (PAPERS & PROC.)
-
See FRIEDMAN, supra note 7, at 5-6; sources cited supra notes 17-18; see also J.R. Kearl et al., A Confusion of Economists?, AM. ECON. REV. (PAPERS & PROC.). May 1979, at 28 (presenting results of opinion surveys demonstrating that economists agree on a variety of applied policy issues).
-
Am. Econ. Rev.
-
-
Kearl, J.R.1
-
59
-
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0040921729
-
Economic Analysis as a Potentially Defective Product: A Buyer's Guide to Posner's Economic Analysis of Law
-
See A. Mitchell Polinsky, Economic Analysis as a Potentially Defective Product: A Buyer's Guide to Posner's Economic Analysis of Law, 87 HARV. L. REV. 1655, 1667-69 (1974);
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Harv. L. Rev.
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, pp. 1655
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Mitchell Polinsky, A.1
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60
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0001898803
-
The Organization of Economic Activity: Issues Pertinent to the Choice of Market Versus Nonmarket Allocation
-
Robert H. Haveman & Julius Margolis eds., 2d ed.
-
see also Kenneth Arrow, The Organization of Economic Activity: Issues Pertinent to the Choice of Market Versus Nonmarket Allocation, in PUBLIC EXPENDITURES AND POLICY ANALYSIS 59 (Robert H. Haveman & Julius Margolis eds., 2d ed. 1977).
-
(1977)
Public Expenditures and Policy Analysis
, pp. 59
-
-
Arrow, K.1
-
63
-
-
0003784636
-
-
cf. A.C. Pigou, THE ECONOMICS OF WELFARE 89 (1920) ("[T]he old law of diminishing utility thus leads securely to the proposition: Any cause which increases the absolute share of real income in the hands of the poor, provided that it does not lead to a contraction in the size of the national dividend . . . will in general, increase economic welfare.").
-
(1920)
The Economics of Welfare
, pp. 89
-
-
Pigou, A.C.1
-
64
-
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0000964163
-
Were the Ordinalists Wrong about Welfare Economics?
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See generally Robert Cooter & Peter Rappoport, Were the Ordinalists Wrong About Welfare Economics?, 22 J. ECON. LITERATURE 507 (1984).
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J. Econ. Literature
, vol.22
, pp. 507
-
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Cooter, R.1
Rappoport, P.2
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67
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-
84963044572
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A Reformulation of Certain Aspects of Welfare Economics
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A. Burk [Abram Bergson], A Reformulation of Certain Aspects of Welfare Economics, 52 QJ. ECON. 310 (1938).
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QJ. Econ.
, vol.52
, pp. 310
-
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Burk, A.1
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68
-
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0040449894
-
-
ARJO KLAMER, CONVERSATIONS WITH ECONOMISTS 52 (1983) (emphasis omitted). This book, which presents interviews with a number of leading modern macroeconomists, offers an excellent and rare window on the methodological culture of professional economics.
-
(1983)
Conversations with Economists
, pp. 52
-
-
Klamer, A.1
-
69
-
-
0001417422
-
The Path of the Law
-
See O.W. Holmes, The Path of the Law, 10 HARV. L. REV. 457, 461 (1897) ("The prophecies of what the courts will do in fact, and nothing more pretentious, are what I mean by the law.").
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(1897)
Harv. L. Rev.
, vol.10
, pp. 457
-
-
Holmes, O.W.1
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70
-
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0010002830
-
Langdell's Orthodoxy
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See Thomas C. Grey, Langdell's Orthodoxy, 45 U. PITT. L. REV. 1 (1983);
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(1983)
U. Pitt. L. Rev.
, vol.45
, pp. 1
-
-
Grey, T.C.1
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71
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81855175287
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Law & Geometry: Legal Science from Leibniz to Langdell
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M.H. Hoeflich, Law & Geometry: Legal Science from Leibniz to Langdell, 30 AM. J. LEGAL HIST. 95 (1986).
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(1986)
Am. J. Legal Hist.
, vol.30
, pp. 95
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-
Hoeflich, M.H.1
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75
-
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26044461320
-
-
See Fuller, supra note 12, at 632-33, 644-46, 649-61; Hart, supra note 11, at 615-21
-
See Fuller, supra note 12, at 632-33, 644-46, 649-61; Hart, supra note 11, at 615-21.
-
-
-
-
76
-
-
26044474743
-
-
See Hart, supra note 11, at 620-21
-
See Hart, supra note 11, at 620-21.
-
-
-
-
77
-
-
26044431570
-
-
See Fuller, supra note 12, at 649-55
-
See Fuller, supra note 12, at 649-55.
-
-
-
-
78
-
-
0004162070
-
-
See, e.g., RICHARD A. POSNER, THE PROBLEMS OF JURISPRUDENCE 228-39 (1990) (arguing that the question whether the Nuremberg judgments were lawful is meaningless).
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(1990)
The Problems of Jurisprudence
, pp. 228-239
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-
Posner, R.A.1
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81
-
-
26044477858
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-
Penelope A. Bulloch & Joseph Raz eds., 2d ed.
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See H.L.A. HART, THE CONCEPT OF LAW 238-76 (Penelope A. Bulloch & Joseph Raz eds., 2d ed. 1994).
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, pp. 238-276
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-
Hart, H.L.A.1
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82
-
-
0013149919
-
-
University of Okla. Press Leff, supra note 1
-
No originality is intended here; the following story is thoroughly conventional and has been told well many times before. See, e.g., WILLIAM TWINING, KARL LLEWELLYN AND THE REALIST MOVEMENT (University of Okla. Press 1985) (1973); Leff, supra note 1;
-
(1973)
Karl Llewellyn and the Realist Movement
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Twining, W.1
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83
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0346944936
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Neutral Principles in the 1950's
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Gary Peller, Neutral Principles in the 1950's, 21 U. MICH. J.L. REF. 561 (1988);
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(1988)
U. Mich. J.L. Ref.
, vol.21
, pp. 561
-
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Peller, G.1
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84
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84935135081
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87
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Stein, H.1
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93
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0004104007
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AARON WILDAVSKY, THE POLITICS OF THE BUDGETARY PROCESS 138-44, 193-96 (4th ed. 1984) (describing and critiquing the use of program budgeting in the Defense Department);
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99
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Posner, incidentally, has conceded this point. See POSNER, supra note 50, at 373-74
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101
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Fried, C.1
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note
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104
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Posner, R.A.2
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, vol.35
, pp. 14
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