The development of the professional magistracy in England and Wales

Criminal Law Review

Volumn , Issue AUG., 2000, Pages 631-651

  Seago, Peter ^a   Walker, Clive ^a   Wall, David ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 25644432552     PISSN: 0011135X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (190)

1. See Lord Chancellor's Department Working Party, The Role of the Stipendiary Magistrate (London, 1996) (the "Venne Report");
2. Lord Chancellor's Department, Creation of a Unified Stipendiary Branch (http://www.open.gov.uk/lcd/consult/general/stipecon.htm, 1998) ("LCD Consultation Paper").
3. See the Police and Magistrates' Courts Act 1994, Pt IV; Crime and Disorder Act 1998, Pt III; Access to Justice Act 1999, Pt V.
4. See further, I. R. Kaufman "The essence of judicial independence" (1980) 80 Col. L.R. 671 at 672-678.
5. See Criminal Statistics for England and Wales 1997 (Cm. 4162, 1998), p.123.
6. P. Seago, C. Walker and D. Wall, The Role and Appointment of Stipendiary Magistrates (Centre for Criminal Justice Studies and Lord Chancellor's Department, Leeds, 1995) (hereafter "Seago et al").
7. See J. P. Dawson, A History of Lay Judges (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1960);
8. F. Milton, The English Magistracy (Oxford University Press, 1967);
9. L. Page, Justices of the Peace (Faber, London, 1967);
10. E. Moir, The Justice of the Peace (Penguin, London, 1969);
11. B. F. Harrison and A. J. Maddox, The Work of the Magistrate (Shaw and Shaw, London, 1975);
12. Sir T. Skyrme, The Changing Image of the Magistracy (MacMillan, 1979);
13. N. Landau, The Justices of the Peace 1679-1760 (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1984);
14. K. Pain, The Lay Magistrate (Barry Rose, Chichester, 1988);
15. Sir T. Skyrme, History of Justices of the Peace (Barry Rose, Chichester, 1991);
16. J. W. Raine, Local Justice (T & T Clark, Edinburgh, 1989).
17. Sources: Royal Commission on Justices of the Peace (Cmd. 7463, 1948) and the Lord Chancellor's Department. The number in 1830 was said to be around 31,000, but these mainly comprised justices who were either inactive or mainly involved in civil administration, leaving perhaps just 6,000 "judges": R. S. Thompson, "The Justices of the Peace and the United Kingdom in the Age of Reform" (1986) 7(3) Journal of Legal History 273 at 284.
18. The early history is fully recounted by P. Jackson, "Stipendiary magistrates and lay justices" (1946) 9 M.L.R. 1;
19. D. G. Browne, The Rise of Scotland Yard (George G. Harrap, London, 1955), chaps 2 and 3;
20. F. Milton, The English Magistracy (O.U.P., 1967);
21. L. Page, Justice of the Peace (Faber, London, 1967);
22. A. Babbington, A House in Bow Street (Macdonald, London, 1969);
23. Sir T. Skyrme, The Changing Image of the Magistracy (Macmillan, London, 1979);
24. Sir T. Skyrme, History of the Justices of the Peace (Barry Rose, Chichester, 1991) Vol. 2;
25. R. Bartle, "Historical origin of the stipendiary magistrate" (1995) 159 J.P. 126.
26. See Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Magistrates' Courts in London (Cmnd. 1606, 1962) (the "Aarvold Committee").
27. See C. H. E Zangerl, "The Social Composition of the Magistracy" (1971) 11 Journal of British Studies 113.
28. See especially, Magistrates' Courts: Report of a Scrutiny (HMSO, London, 1989) (the "Le Vay Report");
29. Courts Service, Corporate Plan (HMSO, 1995), p.4;
30. M. Narey, Review of Delay in the Criminal Justice System (http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/cpd/pvu/crimrev.htm, 1997) (the "Narey Report").
31. Until 1949, stipendiary magistrates were appointed on the recommendation of the Home Office but now the Lord Chancellor's Department deals with the matter: Justices of the Peace Act 1997, ss.11, 16. For details of the criteria and procedures, see Lord Chancellor's Department, Judicial Appointments Annual Report 1998-99 (Cm. 4449, 1999) paras 3.95-3.108.
32. This practice was permitted in London by the Administration of Justice Act 1964.
33. See Narey Report, p.45;
34. LCD Consultation Paper, para. 31.
35. Youth Courts (Constitution) Rules 1954 (S.I. 1954 No. 1711), rr.2, 12(3).
36. The test for all is now to be the same as for circuit judges: LCD Consultation Paper, para. 30. The current grounds - "inability or misbehaviour" apply to Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrates (Justices of the Peace Act 1997, s.16), but no criteria are specified for Provincial equivalents.
37. Venne Report, para. 8.2.
38. See also LCD Consultation Paper, paras 11, 15, 29.
39. Venne Report, para. 8.4.
40. LCD Consultation Paper, para. 15.
41. LCD Consultation Paper, ibid., para. 41.
42. LCD Consultation Paper, para. 20. See the Access to Justice Act 1999, s.78.
43. See LCD Consultation Paper, para. 22 (Justices of the Peace Act 1997, s.10A(2)).
44. Speech to the Council of the Magistrates' Association (http://www.open.gov.uk/lcd/speeches/1999/25-3-99.htm, 1999).
45. Source: Lord Chancellor's Department. Following the Venne Report, the maximum number of permitted full time provincial stipendiaries was increased from 40 to 50: The Maximum Number of Stipendiary Magistrates Order 1996 SI No. 1924. This figure has since been raised, but to 56 rather than 60 after opposition from the Magistrates' Association: Hansard, H.L. Debs, Vol. 606, col. 1389, November 10, 1999; The Maximum Number of Stipendiary Magistrates Order 1999 (S.I. 1999 No. 3319).
46. Hansard, H.L., Vol. 573, col. 1120, June 27, 1996, Lord Mackay.
47. See especially S. Shetreet, Judges on Trial (North Holland, Amsterdam, 1975);
48. S. Shetreet, and J. Deschênes, (eds) Judicial Independence (Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1985);
49. G. Drewry, "Judicial independence in Britain" in R. Blackburn, (ed.), Constitutional Studies (Mansell, London, 1992);
50. W. F. Rylaarsdam, "Judicial independence - a value worth protecting" (1993) 66 S.Cal.L.R. 1653;
51. J. C. Kelso, "A report on the independence of the judiciary" (1993) 66 S.Cal.L.R. 2209;
52. R. Mecham, "Federal judicial independence symposium" (1995) 46 Mercer L.R. 637;
53. M. L. Friedland, A Place Apart (Canada Communication Group, Ottowa, 1995).
54. G. Drewry, "Judicial independence in Britain" in R. Blackburn (ed.), Constitutional Studies (Mansell, London, 1992), p.152.
55. J. A. G. Griffith, The Politics of the Judiciary (5th ed.), (Fontana, London, 1997).
56. J. Bell, Policy Arguments in Judicial Decisions (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1983), p.4.
57. Seago et al., p.47. Experience of routine business is seen as valuable by the Venne Report, para. 5.4.
58. Other examples of sensitive cases are those involving striking pickets and cases with a racial element: A. Rutherford and B. Gibson, "Special hearings" [1987] Crim. L.R. 440;
59. P. G. N. Badge, "The role of stipendiary magistrate" (1989) 45 (11) The Magistrate 196.
60. P. Carlen, Magistrates' Justice (Martin Robertson, London, 1976) at p.38.
61. D. McBarnet, "Magistrates' courts and the ideology of justice" (1981) 8 British Journal of Law & Society 181.
62. The similar diet of cases also answers the concerns expressed in the Venne Report (para. 1.3) that lay magistrates would be relegated to dealing with cases considered too trivial for the stipendiaries.
63. Though one stipendiary can perform the work of many lay justices, whether salary costs are off-set by reduced investment in court time and court staff and training is yet to be determined.
64. Lay magistrates sit for at least 26 half days each year and should be available for up to 35 half days.
65. See Venne Report, para. 5.2.
66. Seago et al., paras 4.6.18, 4.7.5.
67. There was a 63 per cent conviction rate in such circumstances: J. Vennard, Contested Trials in Magistrates' Courts (Home Office Research Study 71, London, 1981), p.21.
68. See also J. Vennard, "The outcome of contested trials" in D. Moxon, (ed.), Managing Criminal Justice (HMSO, London, 1985);
69. C. Hedderman and D. Moxon, Magistrates' Courts or Crown Court? (Home Office Research Study 125, London, 1992).
70. D. McBarnet, "Magistrates' courts and the ideology of justice" (1981) 8 British Journal of Law & Society 181 at 189.
71. The pressures have been towards the allocation of criminal litigation business into magistrates' courts and out of Crown Courts ever since the James Report (The Distribution of Criminal Business between the Crown Court and Magistrates' Courts, Cmnd. 6323, HMSO, London, 1975).
72. See especially: Criminal Law Act 1977, s.15, Criminal Justice Act 1988, ss.37, 39; (Runciman) Royal Commission on Criminal Justice, Report (Cmnd 2263, HMSO, London, 1993) para. 6.18; Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, s.40;
73. Home Office, Mode of Trial (Cm. 2908, HMSO, London, 1995);
74. Home Office, Determining mode of trial in either-way cases (http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/cpd/pvu/ contrial.htm, 1998);
75. S. Allen, "Straw on trial" (2000) 97/04 Law Society's Gazette 9.
76. J. W. Raine, Local Justice (T & T Clark, Edinburgh, 1989), pp.30-32. The Access to Justice Act 1999 also continues exceptions in respect of the licensing and family jurisdictions: s.10D, Sched. 11, paras 27 and 28.
77. D. Osborne and T. Gaebler, Reinventing Government (Addison-Wesley, Massachusetts, 1992);
78. C. Pollitt, Managerialism and the Public Services (Blackwell, Oxford, 1993);
79. S. Zifcak, New Managerialism (Open University Press, Buckingham, 1994);
80. P. Greer, Transforming Central Government: The Next Steps Initiative (Open University Press, Buckingham, 1994).
81. See further J. W. Raine, and M. J. Wilson, Managing Criminal Justice (Harvester Wheatsheaf, Hemel Hempstead, 1993);
82. J. W. Raine and M. J. Wilson, "Beyond managerialism in criminal justice" (1997) 36 Howard Journal 80;
83. A. James and J. Raine, The New Politics of Criminal Justice (Longman, London, 1998), Chap. 3.
84. Cm. 1829.
85. See Narey Report, Chap. 5.
86. Police and Magistrates' Courts Act 1994, s.75 (see now Justices of the Peace Act 1997, s.40 and Lord Chancellor's Department, The Future Role of the Justices' Clerks, http://www.open.gov.uk/lcd/consult/general/jc-role.htm, 1998),
87. The Future Role of the Justices' Clerk: The Strategic Steer (http://www.open.gov.uk/lcd/consult/general/jcrolefr.htm, 2000).
88. As from January 1, 2000, there are currently 84 MCCs but the number is projected to fall in line with police authority and CPS boundaries including by the creation of a Greater London Magistrates' Court Authority (see: Lord Chancellor's Department, Modernising Justice (Cm.4155, Stationery Office, London, 1998) para.5.19;
89. The Greater London Magistrates' Courts Authority Implementation Issues (http://www.open.gov.uk/lcd/consult/general/mags1.htm, 1999); Access to Justice Act 1999, ss.81, 83). The Access to Justice Act 1999, ss.74, 75 makes it easier to change territorial boundaries within MCCs.
90. Police and Magistrates' Courts Act 1994, s.69(4) (see now Justices of the Peace Act 1997, s.31).
91. Police and Magistrates' Courts Act 1994, s.86 (see now Justices of the Peace Act 1997, s.62). The Access to Justice Act 1999, s.85 grants the Lord Chancellor a power to direct the implementation of recommendations.
92. J. W. Raine and M. J. Wilson, Managing Criminal Justice (Harvester Wheatsheaf, Hemel Hempstead, 1993), p.2.
93. See M. Power, Audit Society (Oxford University Press, 1997).
94. "The independence of the judiciary in the 1980s" [1988] P.L. 44. But note that, for example, the Courts Service categorise the court-listing function as a judicial, rather than an administrative issue.
95. I. R. Kaufman, "Chilling judicial independence" (1979) 88 Yale L.J. 681 at 686.
96. See also (Woolf) Report on Access to Justice: Final Report (http://www.open.gov.uk/lcd/civil/final/ sec3c.htm, 1996).
97. G. Drewry, "Judicial independence in Britain" in R. Blackburn (ed.), Constitutional Studies (Mansell, London, 1992), p.160.
98. See P. Darbyshire, The Magistrates' Clerk (Barry Rose, Chichester, 1984).
99. See also, H. Astor, "The unrepresented defendant revisited" (1986) 13 Journal of Law and Society 225.
100. This has occurred under exceptional circumstances allowed by s.75 of the 1994 Act (see now Justices of the Peace Act 1997, s.40(6)) despite the fact that the office was intended to distance the appointee from judicial functions: S. Baker and J. English, A Guide to the Police and Magistrates' Courts Act 1994 (Butterworths, London, 1994), p.112. The Access to Justice Act 1999, s.87 distinguishes the offices by dropping the requirement (in s.40(5)) of legal qualification for chief executives.
101. See Justices of the Peace Act 1997, s.45; Crime and Disorder Act 1998, s.49; The Justices' Clerks Rules 1999 (S.I. 1999 No. 2784); Lord Chancellor's Department, The Future Role of the Justices' Clerk (http://www.open.gov.uk/lcd/consult/general/jc-rolfr.htm, 1998),
102. The Future Role of the Justices' Clerk: The Strategic Steer (http://www.open.gov.uk/lcd/consult/ general/jcrolefr.htm, 2000), p.7;
103. P. Darbyshire, "A comment on the powers of magistrates' clerks" [1999] Crim. L. R. 377.
104. See Lord Ackner, "The erosion of judicial independence" (1996) 146 N.L.J. 1789.
105. There is also a re-emphasis of the clerks' role as legal adviser in the Lord Chancellor Department guidance paper, The Future Role of the Justices' Clerk: The Strategic Steer (http://www.open.gov.uk/lcd/consult/general/jcrolefr.htm, 2000), p.5.
106. Seago et al., p.129: 60% viewed their training work as important but only 42% thought likewise in relation to their administrative work.
107. See the 1979 Act, s.38(2).
108. Police and Magistrates' Courts Act 1994, s.79(5).
109. See now Justices of the Peace Act 1997, Sched.4.
110. See now Justices of the Peace Act 1997, s.20.
111. J. P. Dawson, A History of Lay Judges (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1960), p.145.
112. Home Affairs Committee, Judicial Appointments (1995-96 H.C. 52-I) (hereafter "Home Affairs Committee Report").
113. This body was formed as recently as 1995: LCD Consultation Paper, para. 13.
114. LCD Consultation Paper, ibid.
115. For further details on terms of service, see: Sir T. Skyrme, History of the Justices of the Peace (Barry Rose, Chichester, 1991), Vol. 2, p.157.
116. Between 1957 and 1977, 67 stipendiaries were appointed, including 45 barristers, 7 solicitors, 9 clerks to the justices and 6 others: Sir T. Skyrme, The Changing Image of the Magistracy (Macmillan, London, 1979), p.169.
117. As at January 1, 2000, 24 out of 96 full-time stipendiaries were justices' clerks: Lord Chancellor Department, The Future Role of the Justices' Clerk: The Strategic Steer (http://www.open.gov.uk/lcd/consult/general/jcrolefr.htm, 2000), p.8.
118. See Sir T. Skyrme, The Changing Image of the Magistracy (Macmillan, London, 1979), p.174.
119. The average age of recent appointees was 46.29: Lord Chancellor's Department, Judicial Appointments Annual Report 1998-99 (Cm. 4449, 1999), p.94.
120. The first woman was appointed in 1945: Judicial Appointments Annual Report 1998-99 ibid., p.17.
121. As at January 1, 2000, there were 49 Provincial Stipendiaries of whom 6 were female (12%), 47 Metropolitan Stipendiaries of whom 8 were female (17%) and 148 Acting Stipendiaries of whom 25 were female (17%) (Source: Lord Chancellor's Department).
122. For the criteria (which focus on the ability of the lay bench, in terms of its size, availability and deployment, to deal expeditiously with the anticipated volume of work), see Seago et al., Appendix.
123. LCD Consultation Paper, para. 26. But in London, the appointment is in consultation with the Chief Stipendiary Magistrate.
124. See for example, Fourth Annual Report (1996-97 H.C. 248) para. 39.
125. Venne Report, paras 2.2, 2.3. This practice is now to be ended.
126. See Judicial Studies Board, Report for 1983-1987 (London, 1988).
127. Lord Chancellor's Department, Judicial Appointments Annual Report 1998-99 (Cm. 4449, 1999) para. 3.106.
128. Lord Chancellor's Department, Judicial Appointments Annual Report 1998-99 (Cm. 4449, 1999) para. 3.100.
129. Seago et al., para. 4.3.7. See also R. Bartle, Crime and the New Magistrate (Barry Rose, Chichester, 1985), p.9.
130. Seago et al., paras 4.5.13, 4.6.12.
131. Lord Chancellor's Department, Judicial Appointments Annual Report 1998-99 (Cm. 4449, Stationery Office, London, 1999) para. 2.22.
132. See Justices of the Peace Act 1998, s.43. Compare: Report of the Departmental Committee on Justices' Clerks (Cmd. 6507, HMSO, London, 1944), paras 69, 105.
133. A requirement as to residence was established by 2 Henry V c. 1.
134. See R. Hood, Sentencing the Motoring Offender (Heinemann, London, 1972);
135. D. Bartlett and J. Walker, "Inner circle" (1973) 24 New Society 139,
136. "Wheel of influence" (1975) 34 New Society 694;
137. J. Baldwin, "The social composition of the magistracy" (1976) 16 B.J. Crim. 171;
138. M. King and C. May, Black Magistrates (Cobden Trust, London, 1985);
139. J. W. Raine and M. J. Wilson, Managing Criminal Justice (Harvester Wheatsheaf, Hemel Hempstead, 1993), p.41;
140. Home Affairs Committee Report, para. 199 et seq.;
141. J. Dignan and A. Wynne, "A microcosm of the local community?" (1997) 37 B. J. Crim. 184. The unrepresentative features were reflected in our own survey of bench chairmen: Seago et al., para. 3.8.2.2.
142. See Hansard, H.C., Vol. 86, col. 294, November 15, 1985, Vol. 87, col. 611, November 28, 1985. During the nineteenth century the county benches were even more markedly dominated by the local power élite: D. S. Wall, The Chief Constables of England and Wales (Dartmouth, Aldershot, 1999), pp.93, 94.
143. See: P. G. Richards, "The selection of justices of the peace" [1961] P.L. 134;
144. B. Cooke, "The appointment of justices of the peace" (1986) 42 The Magistrate 69.
145. See also Lord Chancellor's Department, Judicial Appointments Annual Report 1998-99 (Cm.4449, Stationery Office, London, 1999), paras 5.1-5.23.
146. J. W. Raine, Local Justice (T & T Clark, Edinburgh, 1989), p.65.
147. See Lord Chancellor's Department, Political Balance in the Lay Magistracy (http://www.open.gov.uk/lcd/consult/general/jp-polfr.htm, 1998), para.7.
148. Political Balance in the Lay Magistracy ibid., paras 4, 30.
149. 1995-96 H.C. 52-I. See further the Government Reply (Cm. 3387, 1996).
150. Lord Chancellor's Directions to Advisory Committees on Justices of the Peace (1998); Lord Chancellor's Department, Judicial Appointments Annual Report 1998-99 (Cm. 4449, 1999), para. 5.11.
151. J. W. Raine, Local Justice (T & T Clark, Edinburgh, 1989), p.52.
152. N. Landau, The Justices of the Peace 1679-1760 (University of California Press, Berkley, 1984), pp.359-360. Property qualifications for justices of the peace were abolished in 1906.
153. See T. J. Heath, "God, man and the stipendiary" (1993) 157 J.P. 137.
154. See Lord Chancellor's Department, Political Balance in the Lay Magistracy (http://www.open.gov.uk/lcd/consult/general/jp-polfr.htm, 1998), para. 42.
155. See Lord Chancellor's Department, Press Release 329/99.
156. S. P. Croley, "The majoritarian difficulty: elective judiciaries and the rule of law" (1995) 62 U. Chig. L.R. 689 at pp.726, 734. Elections are not even a good method for producing a representative bench: p.789.
157. See also M. H. Shapiro, "USC Symposium on judicial election, selection and accountability" (1988) 61 S. Cal. L.R. 1555;
158. P. M. McFadden, Electing Justice (American Judicature Society, Chicago, 1991);
159. K. E. Scheuerman, "Rethinking Judicial Elections" (1993) 72 Oregon L.R. 459.
160. Home Affairs Committee Report, para. 11;
161. Hansard, H.L. Debs, Vol. 573, col. 1122, June 27, 1998, Lord Irvine.
162. P. Carlen, Magistrates' Justice (Martin Robertson, London, 1976), p.75.
163. S. Brown, Magistrates at Work (Open University Press, Buckingham, 1991), pp.111-112.
164. Justices of the Peace Act 1997, s.6. The Lord Chancellor requires that candidates should have a reasonable degree of knowledge of the area to which they wish to be appointed and generally expects them to have lived in that area for a minimum of 12 months.
165. (1986). See J. W. Raine and M. J. Wilson, Managing Criminal Justice (Harvester Wheatsheaf, Hemel Hempstead, 1993), p.106.
166. Concern on this ground is expressed by the Home Affairs Committee Report, para. 198.
167. J. W. Raine and M. J. Wilson, Managing Criminal Justice (Harvester Wheatsheaf, Hemel Hempstead, 1993), p.116.
168. See Z. K. Bankowski, N. R. Hutton and J. J. McManus, Lay Justice? (T & T Clark, Edinburgh, 1987).
169. Home Affairs Committee Report, para. 198.
170. C. Alugo, J. Richards, G. Wise and J. Raine, "The magistrates' court and the community" (1996) 160 J.P. 329.
171. Custodial sentences made up 4.96 per cent of the total in 1990, but individual petty sessional divisions varied from 17.44 per cent to 0 per cent. See also: R. Hood, Sentencing in Magistrates' Courts (Stevens, London, 1962);
172. R. Tarling, Sentencing Practice in Magistrates' Courts (Home Office Research Study 56, London, 1979);
173. D. Acres, "Consistency and sentencing" (1987) 151 J.P. 343.
174. H. Parker, M. Sumner and G. Jarvis, Unmasking the Magistrate (Open University Press, Milton Keynes, 1989), p.16.
175. See R. Young and D. Wall, Access to Criminal Justice (Blackstone Press, London, 1996), Chap. 7.
176. Speech to the Council of the Magistrates' Association (http://www.open.gov.uk/lcd/ speeches/1999/25-3-99.htm, 1999).
177. See The Training of Justices of the Peace in England and Wales (Cmnd. 2856, HMSO, London, 1965).
178. See Sir T. Skyrme, History of the Justices of the Peace (Barry Rose, Chichester, 1991) V ol. 3.
179. See Hansard, H.L. Debs, Vol. 582, cols 1066, October 29, 1997, Lord Irvine.
180. http://www.criminal-courts-review.org.uk/.
181. Home Affairs Committee Report, para. 198.
182. E. Burney, J.P.: Magistrate, Court and Community (Hutchinson, London, 1979), p.216.
183. Home Affairs Committee Report, para. 196.
184. See Venne Report, paras 8.4, 8.6.
185. Venne Report, ibid., para. 5.3
186. Narey Report, para. 14.
187. R. v. Harrow Crown Court, ex p. Dawe (1994) 158 J.P. 250.
188. See the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, s.106.
189. M. L. Friedland, A Place Apart (Canada Communication Group, Ottowa, 1995), p.xiii.
190. In relation to a MCC, the "paying authority" means any responsible local authority whose area comprises all or part of the area to which the MCC relates. The paying authority provides 20% of MCC funding, with the Lord Chancellor's Department responsible for 80%, subject to a cash limit. See the Justices of the Peace Act 1997, ss.55, 57.