Chiefs, hunters and adventurers: The foundation of the Okavango/Moremi National Park, Botswana

Journal of Historical Geography

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 241-259

  Bolaane, Maitseo ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Botswana; National Parks; Politics of conservation; Wilderness; Wildlife management

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; NATIONAL PARK; NATURE CONSERVATION; PROTECTED AREA;

AFRICA; EASTERN HEMISPHERE; NAMIBIA; OKAVANGO; SOUTHERN AFRICA; SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA; WORLD;

EID: 25444474531     PISSN: 03057488     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jhg.2004.12.023     Document Type: Article

References (150)

1. This article is part of my doctoral research. The broader research project involved field and archival research in the Ngamiland administrative headquarters Maun, the settlements of Khwaai (including Moremi and its vicinity), Sankuyo, Mababe and Gudigwa. Preliminary discussions and interviews in 1997-1999 (with local community members and key informants) laid the basis for my major fieldwork in 2000-2002, when I conducted interviews and organized focus group meetings with BaTawana figures as well as with San/BaSarwa and Yei, and with members of the white community.
2. D. Western and R.M. Wright, Natural Connections: Perspectives in Community-based Conservation, Washington, 1994
3. D. Anderson and R. Grove, Conservation in Africa: People, Policies and Practices, Cambridge, 1987
4. D. Hulme and M. Murphree, African Wildlife and Livelihoods: The Promise and Performance of Community Conservation, Oxford, 2001
5. J. Alexander J. McGregor Wildlife and politics: Campfire in Zimbabwe Development and Change 31 2000 605-627
6. R. Duffy, Killing for Conservation: Wildlife Policy in Zimbabwe, Oxford, 2000.
7. On turn of the century game laws in the region, see R. Mutirwa A question of condoning game slaughter: Southern Rhodesia wildlife policy (1890-1953) Journal of Southern African Studies 15 1989 250-262
8. C. Spinage, History and Evolution of the Fauna Conservation Law in Botswana, Gaborone, 1991
9. Wright and Wright, Natural Connections.
10. J. Carruthers, The Kruger National Park: A Social and Political History, Pietermaritzburg, 1995.
11. J. Adamson On what man might learn from the animals Africana: Incorporating the African Wildlife Society Review 5 1973 3-14
12. See B. Grzimek A little help and these great parks are saved Africana: Incorporating The African Wildlife Society Review 5 1973 10-12
13. J. Kay, Okavango, London, 1962, 15-20, Wild Eden, London, 1964, 1-24 and The Thirteenth Moon, London, 1970, 1-17
14. see also J. Vendall-Clark, Starlings Laughing: A memoir of Africa, London, 1990.
15. J. Kay, The Thirteenth Moon, 1-17; see also Vendall-Clark.
16. J. Kay, Okavango, 15-20
17. J. Kay and The Thirteenth Moon, 18-24.
18. Kay, Wild Eden, 13-18
19. Vendall-Clark, Starling Laughing, 163.
20. Vendall-Clark, Starling Laughing, 163.
21. Interviews with Pete Smith, Maun, 11 December 1997; Salepito Baphare and Dipuo Moarabe, Sankuyo, 23 February 1998; Harry Selby, Maun, 25 February 1998 and 24 October 2001; Keamogetswe and Lesie Kwere, Khwai, 4 July 1997 and 28 June 1998; Tumelo Sejwara, Khwaai, 24 June 1997; Lekgoa Mabejane, Maun, 05 July 1997; Isaac Tudor, Maun, 02 August 2001 and 23 August 2001.
22. J. Kay, Okavango, 21-61
23. Vendall-Clark, Starlings Laughing, 164.
24. See J. Kay, Okavango and Wild Eden
25. M. Michael, I Married A Hunter, London, 1958.
26. L. Palmer, in: T. Sachenz-Arino (Ed.), Hunting in Botswana, Florida, 1994, 249.
27. W. Beinart and P. Coates, Environment and History: The Taming of Nature in the USA and South Africa, London and New York, 29-31
28. E.I. Steinhart Hunters, poachers and gamekeepers: Towards a social history of hunting in colonial Kenya Journal of African History 30 1989 247-264
29. The Star, Johannesburg, 11 February 1961.
30. World Conservation Programme WWF & IUCN Journal 9 1974-1975 9
31. Vendall-Clark, Starlings Laughing, 163
32. W.L. Astle, A History of Wildlife Conservation and Management in the Mid-Luangwa Valley, Zambia, Bristol, 1999, 5.
33. Letter of application for crocodile shooting from Herbert Brinkmann, Johannesburg to Government office, Mafikeng, 21 January 1960, Divisional Commissioner (N) 5/9; Game Ranger, Francistown to Government Secretary, Mafikeng, GR/4/1/60, 12 February 1960 and 2 November 1960, GR/4/7/60; Divisional Commissioner North to Govt. Secretary, Mafikeng, 31 October 1960 NPN/2A. All references to Botswana National Archives [hereafter BNA].
34. Minute to Attorney General, 11 May 1964, Ref. No. D.7501/10 VI, BNA S. 414/216
35. see also Savingram, Revenue earnings capacity of game resources, from Member for Tribal and Social Services, Mafikeng, No. A. 9092/52, 7 February 1963 and Div. Com (N) 5/9, for details on total crocodile skin exports from Chobe and Ngamiland, 1956-1962. Botswana used the South African Rand until 1970s.
36. C. Cowley Fabled Tribe: A Journey to Discover the River Bushmen of the Okavango Swamps, London, 1969, 18-29
37. Vendall-Clark, Starling Laughing, 163
38. J. Kay, Okavango, 160-169 and Wild Eden, 108-122.
39. BNA, Div. Com. (N) 1/9, Minutes of the Annual General meeting of the Fauna Preservation Society, 9 March 1963; BaTawana Tribal Council Annual Kgotla meetings, Maun, 12 and 15 March 1963.
40. Vendall-Clark, Starlings Laughing, 160-163.
41. Div. Com (N) 5/9, correspondence from G. Winstanley, D.C, Maun to Govt. Sec., Mafikeng, No. Z/25/N/T, 22 August 1959, BNA
42. see also interview with P. Smith, Maun, 11 December 1997.
43. Div. Com. (N) 5/9, correspondence from C.E. Clark, D.C. Maun to Govt. Secretary, Mafikeng, No. Z/25(154), 15 October 1959
44. J. Mallinson, Okavango Adventure: In Search of Animals in Southern Africa, London, 1989.
45. J. Mallinson, Okavango Adventure
46. see also interview with P. Smith, Maun, 11 December
47. J. Kay, The Thirteenth Moon, 112
48. Vendall-Clark, 174.
49. Mohumagadi can be translated as 'King's great wife' or 'royal wife'; see T. Tlou, A History of Ngamiland - 1750 to 1906 - The Formation of an African State, Gaborone, 1985, 37-38.
50. Vendall-Clark, Starlings Laughing
51. interview with P. Smith, 11 December 1997.
52. M. Clark, The Extraordinary Life and Adventures of Miles and Beryl Smeeton, London, 1991, 318, 323. Also see BNA S. 584/2 Game: Hunting of Game for Zoos, Scientific purposes, game farming, etc. 1964
53. H. Selby's personal account, in: T. Sanchez-Arino (Ed.), Hunting in Botswana, 303
54. Vendall-Clark, Starling Laughing, 243-247.
55. Mallinson, Okavango Adventure
56. Clark, The Extraordinary Life and Adventures of Miles and Beryl Smeetons, London, 1991, 323.
57. J. Kay, Wild Eden, Africana: Incorporating The East African Wildlife Society's Review 1 8 1963 39
58. Vendall-Clark, Starlings Laughing, 169-173, 240
59. A. House, The Lives of George and Joy Adamson, London, 1993.
60. For pictures of trapped animals, see Kay, Wild Eden, Africana: Incorporating The East African Wildlife Society's Review 1 8 1963 38-39
61. Fauna Preservation in Ngamiland African Wildlife 17 1 1963 61-65
62. Friends of the Earth Okavango, A Brief History of the Creation of the Moremi Wildlife Reserve, East of The Sun, Cape Town, 1961, 1-7
63. The Thirteenth Moon, 64 and 113, 129-135 and Wild Eden, 47 and 61-72
64. J.J. Mallinson Dangers involved in the exploitation of game in Ngamiland Orynx 6 1962 5
65. J. Kay Fauna Preservation in Ngamiland African Wildlife 17 1 1963 62
66. See Government position on this matter, BNA Div. Com (N) 5/9, correspondence by P.A. Heady to the Secretariat, Mafikeng, No. A. 2845 IV, 19 March 1963.
67. BNA Div. Com (N) 1/8, confidential correspondence on shooting in Ngamiland, No. NP, 31 January 1955.
68. See BNA Div. Com (N) 5/9, Official correspondence from P.J. Heady, Member of Tribal Affairs and Social Services to the Secretariat, Mafikeng, No. A. 2845 IV, 19 March 1963
69. see also J. Kay, Fauna Preservation, 62.
70. Kenya National Archives, GAM/207/2, Conservation, protection, control, preservation of game, general
71. E.I. Steinhart Hunters, poachers and gamekeepers: Towards a social history of hunting in colonial Kenya Journal of African History 30 1989 247-264
72. The Star, Johannesburg, 11 February, 1961.
73. African Wildlife 15 4 1961 271-278
74. African Wildlife 1 1 1959 25
75. Africana: East African Wildlife Society - Special Issue on Wildlife Conservation throughout Africa 5 1963
76. E.J. Carruthers, Game Protection in the Transvaal 1846 to 1926, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cape Town, 1988 and The Kruger National Park: A Social and Political History, Pietermaritzburg, 1995
77. H. Russell A review of Tanganyika's national parks Africana: Incorporating The East African Wildlife Society Review 2 2 1964 19
78. J. Verschuren The Albert National Park is intact African Wildlife 17 1 1963 5 7, 9
79. Africana 9 1964 48
80. African Wildlife 1 1 1959 17
81. Quoted in Africana 1 1963 20
82. Africana 9 1964 48
83. Africana 9 1964 48
84. IUCN Bulletin Vol. IV, 5.
85. Interview, John Benn, Maun, 31 August 2001. This is also confirmed in other Maun interviews: Isaac Tudor, 12 December 1997 and 23 August 2001
86. Douglas Wright, 22 August 2001, Harry Selby, 25 February 1998 and Pete Smith, 11 December 1997
87. BNA Div. Com (N) 5/9 and 5/11, Savingram on formation of a fauna conservation society in Ngamiland; letter from C.E. Clark, DC Maun to Member for Tribal Affairs and Social Services, Mafikeng, No. H/14 (19) M/ S, 25 September 1962
88. see also K. Robert June Fauna Preservation in Ngamiland Oryx 6 5 1962 5-6
89. See Div. Com. (N) 5/9, Robert Kay's note on the meeting for the founding of a Fauna Preservation Society, 26 May 1962.
90. Interview, Pete Smith, Maun, 11 December 1997.
91. B.N.A. Div. Com (N) 5/9, Savingram from C.E Clark, D.C, Maun to Member of Tribal Affairs and Social Services, Mafikeng, No. H/13(60), 3 May 1962; Savingram from Member for Local Government, Social Services and Commerce to all District Commissioners, No. 12163, 12 March 1962; Div. Com (N) 5/11, Savingram, Professional guides licenses
92. see also J. Kay Fauna Preservation Society in N'gamiland African Wildlife 17 1 1963 66
93. B.N.A. Div. Com (N) 5/9, Savingram from C.E. Clark, D.C, Maun to Member of Tribal and Social services, Mafikeng, No. H/14(19), 25 September 1962
94. see also K. Robert June Fauna Preservation in Ngamiland Oryx 6 5 1962 5-6
95. J.J. Mallison Dangers involved in the exploitation of game in Ngamiland Oryx 6 5 1962
96. Interview with Isaac Tudor, born 1928, Maun, 12 December 1997; 02 and 23 August 2001
97. see also Kay, Thirteenth Moon, 109
98. Vendall-Clark, Starlings Laughing, 174
99. Maun families such as Tudor, Ramsden, Benn, Wellio, Wright identify themselves as BaTawana. On Ronnie Kays born in Ngamiland in 1929, see his personal account, in: T. Sanchez-Arino (Ed.), Hunting in Botswana, Long Beach: Florida, 1994.
100. I. Schapera, The Ethnic Composition of the Tswana Tribes, London, 1952.
101. Interviews in Maun with Tudor, 02 August 2001 and Smith, 11 December 1997
102. see also J. Kay, A brief history of the Moremi Wildlife Reserve, East of the Sun Brochure, Friends of the Okavango, Cape Town, 1961, 6.
103. Smith's personal archives [hereafter SPA]: Minutes for the Inaugural Meeting of the Fauna Preservation Society, Riley's Hotel, Maun, 2 July 1962.
104. SPAs, Fauna Preservation Society Inaugural speech, Robert Kay, Riley's Hotel, Maun, 2 July 1962
105. see also interview with Isaac Tudor, 2 August 2001.
106. Minutes of the Inaugural Meeting of the Fauna Preservation Society, 2 July 1962
107. see also J. Kay, Fauna Preservation in Ngamiland, African Wildlife, 63.
108. Minutes of the Inaugural Meeting of the Fauna Preservation Society, 2 July 1962, 3.
109. B.N.A. Div. Com (N) 10/9, Minutes of a Meeting of the Tsetse Fly Central Policy Making Committee, Maun, 8 October 1963
110. Vendall-Clark, Starling Laughing, 176-177, 251-252. In Botwana today, 'Masarwa' (rather than Basarwa) is considered derogatory.
111. Interviews Tudor, 12 December 1997 and 2 August 2001; Smith, 11 December 1997; see also Kay, Thirteenth Moon, 109.
112. BNA, S. 548/3. Kay, Thirteenth Moon, 100e112. June makes reference to Ledimo and his fondness in carrying White Fang in his pocket, 137.
113. See interviews with Isaac Tudor, 2 August 2001 and 23 August 2001, Ronnie Kay, 23 August 2001 and John Benn, 31 August 2001
114. see also B. Morton, A Social and Economic History of Southern African Native Reserve: Ngamiland, 1890-1966, unpublished PhD thesis, Indiana University, 1996, 137
115. B.N.A. Div. Com (N) 5/9, Savingrams from C.E. Clark, D.C, Maun, to Member for Tribal Affairs and Social Services, Mafikeng, No. H/14(19), 25 September 1962 and No. H/2, 1 February 1963; Vendall-Clark, Starling Laughing, 174; interview with Isaac Tudor, 12 December 2001. Mohumagadi/ MmaKgosi means the queen or chief's wife.
116. The Traditional Tswana Kgotla, Gaborone, 1998, 1-9
117. L.D. Ngcongco, Tswana political tradition: How democratic? in: J. Holm and P. Molutsi (Eds), Democracy in Botswana, Gaborone, 1989, 42-47.
118. See P.T. Mgadla and Alec Campbell's various interviews appended to Dikgotla, Dikgosi and the Protectorate Administration, in: Holm and Molutsi (Eds), Democracy in Botswana, 49.
119. Mgadla and Campbell, in: Holm and Molutsi (Eds), Democracy in Botswana, 35
120. J. Parsons, Botswana: Liberal Democracy and the Labour Reserve in Southern Africa, London, 1984, 16.
121. P. Peters, Diving The Commons; Politics, Policy, and Culture in Botswana, London, 1994, 34.
122. BNA S. 543/2, Extract: Original in 9750/2, Administrative Conference, 13 July 1953; Notes of discussion with MacKenzie on 11 August 1955, in Commonwealth Relations Office [place not specified]
123. see also S. Gillet The survival of chieftaincy in Botswana Botswana Notes and Records 7 1992 104
124. BNA Div. Com. (N) 5/9, Savingram, from D.C., Maun to Government Secretary, Mafikeng, No. C/56, 17th May 6 September 1955; Original Extract, Administrative Conference, No. 9750/2, 13 July 1953; Memorandum from D.D. Randall to Government Secretary, No. 9857/2, 23 December 1955; Notes of discussion with Mr. Mackenzie in Commonwealth Relations Office, 11 August 1955. See also S. 543/2, report on the position of subordinate tribes in Ngamiland with particular references to the BaYei, 1953. The tribal council established in BaTawana tribal territory as known as the BaTawana Tribal Council, following the High Commissioner's Notice No. of 1960 and 61, 'Bechuanaland Protectorate: African Local Councils in the BaTawana Tribal Territory'.
125. BNA S. 543/2, Report on the position of subordinate tribes in Ngamiland with particular reference to the BaYei, 1953.
126. L.D. Ngongco, Tswana political tradition: How democratic? in: Holm and Molutsi (Eds), Democracy in Botswana, 1989, 42-47.
127. BNA Div Com (N) 5/9, Savingram from D.C, Maun to Member for Tribal Affairs and Social services, No. H/14(19), 25 September 1962
128. see also Kay, The Thirteenth Moon, 124.
129. BNA Div Com. (N) 5/11, Maun Kgotla meeting 12 September 1962.
130. BNA Div Com (N) 5/11 Maun Kgotla, meeting 12 September1962; letter from Robert Kay to Game Ranger Bromfield, 28 February 1963; see also interview with Tudor 2 August 2001, 2 September 2001; Smith11 December 1997.
131. A campaign message by N. Simon Chairman of Kenya Wildlife Society African Wildlife 1 1 1959 7
132. BNA Div Com (N) 5/11; Kay's speech at Maun Kgotla, 12 September 1962.
133. Kay, Wild Eden, Africana: Incorporating The East African Wildlife Society's Review 1 8 1963 39
134. A Brief History of the Creation of the Moremi Wildlife Reserve, 5; see also BNA Div. Com. (N) 5/11, Speech made to the Maun Kgotla, 12 September 1962.
135. Interview, Isaac Tudor and L. Setlhoko, 2 August 2001.
136. BNA Div. Com. (N), Kay's speech Maun Kgotla 12 September 1962; A document prepared by Robert and June Kay on National Parks and Preservation of Fauna and endorsed by the executive of the Fauna Preservation Society of Ngamiland
137. see also African Wildlife 15 4 1963 270
138. See interviews, Tudor 2 August 2001; E.K. Nkwane, 26 February 1998.
139. Div. Com (N), a letter from D.C. Clark to Robert Kay, 2oth June 1962. The same quotation appears in a page (not numbered) between list of illustrations and the prologue in June Kay, The Thirteenth Moon.
140. See Kay, The Thirteenth Moon, 120-121.
141. Interview, Isaac Tudor, 2 August 2001
142. see also The Thirteenth Moon, This book opens with the above statement made by the Maun DC in 1962.
143. SPA, Minutes of the annual meeting, Riley's Hotel, Maun, 30 January and 9 March 1963.
144. BNA Div Com (N) 5/9, Savingram from D.C. Maun to Member for Tribal Affairs and Social Services, No. H/ 14(19), 25 September 1962; Div. Com. (N) 5/11, Savingram from D.C. Clark to Mafikeng office, No. H/14 (22) M/ S, 11 November 1962. Also see Minutes of a Meeting to Form a Fauna Preservation Society in Ngamiland, Riley's Hotel, Maun, 1 November 1962 and SPA, Memorandum from DC C.E. Clark, Maun, Ref. No. H/14 M/R, 28 January 1963.
145. BNA Div. Com. (N) 5/11, Minutes of Committee and General meetings of Ngamiland Fauna Preservation Society, Riley's Hotel, Maun, 7 November 1962.
146. Div. Com. (N) 5/9, P. R. Hill and T. Riney Traditional Conservation of Renewable Resources by Africans, FAO/ IUCN African Special Project Report stage III, Morges, 1962.
147. Isaac Tudor, Maun, 23 August 2001.
148. Michael Dithapo quoted in the minutes of the Tawana Tribal Council meeting and Kgotla 12 and 15 March 1963.
149. Maun interviews with G. Segadimo, 12 august 2001; E.K. Nkwane, 26 September 2001
150. L. Setlhoko and I. Tudor, 23 August 2001.