Credit, work and race in 1790s Calcutta: Early colonialism through a contemporary European view

Indian Economic and Social History Review

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 1-23

  Robb, Peter ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 25444452409     PISSN: 00194646     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/001946460003700101     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Richard Blechynden, 'Diary', Add. Mss. 45578-45663, British Library, London. The 73 volumes of diaries begin at Add. Mss. 45581. Subsequent references are cited as 'Diary' and by the date of the entry only. Quotations have minor modernisations of spelling and punctuation.
2. This essay adds some details to Peter Robb, 'Clash of Cultures? An Englishman in Calcutta in the 1790s', Inaugural lecture, SOAS, London, 12 March 1998, which also discusses the purpose and significance of the diary.
3. William Hickey, Memoirs of William Hickey, Vol. I: 1749-75,
4. William Hickey, Memoirs of William Hickey, Vol. II: 1775-82,
5. William Hickey, Memoirs of William Hickey, Vol. III: 1782-90
6. William Hickey, Memoirs of William Hickey, Vol. IV: 1790-1809 (Alfred Spencer, ed., London, 1913, 1919, n.d. and 1925).
7. P.J. Marshall, East Indian Fortunes: The British in Bengal in the Eighteenth Century, Oxford, 1976, p. 21.
8. However, Percival Spear, The Nabobs, London, 1980 (first edition 1932, second edition 1963) claims that an English middle class was lacking in Calcutta, with the falling status of 'trade', and society divided between would-be aristocrats and 'vagabonds'; pp. 37, 57-61.
9. Only 508 European Company servants were appointed from 1762 to 1784, of whom 37 had returned to England and 150 had died; B.B. Misra, The Bureaucracy in India: An Historical Analysis of Development to 1947, Delhi, 1977, p. 52, quoting India Bill debates.
10. Charles Moore, The Sheriffs of Fort William from 1775 to 1920, Calcutta, 1921, pp. 9-11: 'Of coopers there were many, shoemakers were to be met with by the score. Tailors, carpenters, coach and shipbuilders were very much in evidence . . .'. There were 400 JPs of Fort William, all born in the British Isles, plus 74 jurors summoned to the session in 1818. The 'Diary' mentions surveyors, builders, shipbuilders, printers, engravers, writers, journalists, lawyers, doctors, shopkeepers, auctioneers, booksellers, tailors, stable-owners, marine and army officers, padres, and indigo planters.
11. At least one European woman ran a brothel in the 1790s; Blechynden, 'Diary', November 1794.
12. There were also European milliners and undertakers; James Long, Calcutta and its Neighbourhood . . . 1690-1857 (Sankar Sen Gupta, ed.), Calcutta, 1974, p. 103 and passim.
13. See Sumanta Banerjee, The Parlour and the Streets: Elite and Popular Culture in Nineteenth Century Calcutta, Calcutta, 1989, p. 31.
14. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, The Beggar and the Professor: A Sixteenth-Century Family Saga (Arthur Goldhammer tr.), Chicago, 1997: Thomas achieving upward mobility that by the seventeenth century would be 'no longer astonishing ... simply noteworthy,' and Felix 'a man of the Reformation . . . and herald if not hero of the Renaissance' (pp. 351, 349).
15. See also the review by Helen Cooper, London Review of Books (15 October 1998), p. 20.
16. See Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, New Haven, 1992, pp. 66-67 (and references to the work of Julian Hoppit and Charles Munn, p. 391), on the shortages of coins, the lack of regular incomes, the importance of credit in many different forms, and the consequent web of dependency and obligation in eighteenth-century Britain:
17. Blechynden, 'Diary', 24 June 1793 and 24 October 1794.
18. Diary Ibid., 17 and 18 April 1793. Vialars demanded that Blechynden repay a bond of Rs 21,600, the correct total, though, in a legal judgement some time earlier, Rs 21,000 had been wrongly entered. Blechynden offered to oblige in a couple of months, as he could not pay before then. His friends urged him to deny the extra Rs 600, and defend any action, because Vialars had taken advantage of his distress. Vialars was angered by the accusation of usury, and argued it could not apply to a foreigner. His demands threatened to unravel a whole batch of debts. To prevent this, Blechynden turned to Sir Charles Blunt, the postmaster-general, for whom, he wrote, he had often worked for nothing to build up his credit. When Blunt refused him
19. (Diary Ibid., 21 June 1793), relations with Blunt finally collapsed in insults and threats:
20. Diary Ibid., 5 September 1793. Blechynden borrowed from partners and associates of the Chronicle, recycling and rescheduling earlier debts: (a) Rs 13,000 from a retired Company servant, William Pawson (for whom he was later to do much work), partly covered by a bond for Rs 3,000 to write off a debt which Pawson owed Major Alexander Kyd, founder of the naval dockyards at Kidderpore; (b) Rs 4,500 at a month from another friend, and the same amount again at two months; (c) from an existing creditor, Rs 9,000 over a year, while paying off the interest and some of the capital of the earlier debt; (d) Rs 15,000 against his Chronicle share from Price for whom he was building a verandah (but Price produced only Rs 12,000, claiming that the other Rs 3,000 was the advance he had paid for the verandah - and Blechynden made up the balance by accepting bills drawn on himself for Rs 3,000 at a discount of 3 per cent per month);
21. (e) Rs 9,000 from the merchant and Chronicle partner, Charles Rothman, in the form (after some to-ing and froing) of a promissory note drawn upon other merchant-partners, Gavin Hamilton and Alexander Aberdein, at 10 percent a month (Blechynden was advised to get cash for it 'from some native' rather than the bank, which would charge 12 per cent). Meanwhile Aaron Upjohn, bassoon-player turned engraver, who also had a share in the Chronicle but owed it to Blechynden, offered to assign to him against his debts the first Rs 5,000 received from the publication of his new map of Calcutta. See also 'Diary', 19 June 1793;
22. Robb, 'Clash of Cultures?'.
23. Long, Calcutta, pp. 118-19. Long measured this partly in church attendance; he reported Sunday congregations at St John's to be small, and those of David Brown, an evangelical who arrived in 1786, to be unfashionable and poor. Though Blechynden did not attend church, his conscience was overtly Christian or at least deist.
24. See the instance of Berkeley below.
25. Blechynden, 'Diary', 9 May 1795. He was also very resistant at the attempts to marry him to her younger sister, Josephine Carrion. See for example, 15, 19 and 23 October 1793, and 9 May, 6 and 8 June and 2 July 1795.
26. Diary Ibid., 3 August 1794.
27. Diary Ibid., 16, 26, 27 and 29 May 1975, and 1 June 1795.
28. Diary Ibid., 10 September 1793.
29. Diary Ibid., 20, 23, 27 and 28 July 1794.
30. Diary Ibid., 23 July 1795. Alexander Kyd (d. 1826) was the eponymous founder of the Company's Kidderpore naval dockyards (in which he was succeeded by his illegitimate Eurasian son, James). From Blechynden, Kyd commissioned building works and a memorial to his uncle, Robert (1746-93), founder of the Botanical Gardens.
31. Among many other instances, was the saga of Blechynden's relations with his neighbour, Doncaster; at one time, before the two became friendly, matters threatened to come to blows, and Blechynden even suspected that Doncaster had tried to have him killed. Blechynden., 'Diary', passim, 1794-95.
32. Diary Ibid., 4, 5 and 6 November 1795.
33. Diary Ibid., 12 February 1795. Emphasis in original. This conversation was with Pawson, who took the contrary view - partiality for the foreigner - which Blechynden attributed to his relationship with Soubise.
34. Diary Ibid., 19 and 21 October 1791, 7, 8, 15 and 16 December 1791, and 1 February 1792.
35. Diary Ibid., 10 January 1794. Williamson's co-conspirators had been Harry Grant and Palk. Palk refunded the cash and was reinstated. Williamson was trying to make himself acceptable again by supplying further timber, which was in short supply.
36. Spear, Nabobs, referred briefly to 'personal rules of life', including 'plain living', but did not trace their practical importance (pp. 95-96).
37. Judging from his recorded jokes, both those actually made and those only thought of afterwards, fear of public scandal not prudishness led him to instruct the Chronicle printer, M. Reilly, to 'write to Major McKenzie that unless his future Persian translations were more delicate they would not be inserted in the Chronicle'. Blechynden, 'Diary', 21 May 1793.
38. He was concerned with the education and moral well-being of children; Diary ibid., 23 October 1793 and 7 August 1795.
39. Diary Ibid., 16 and 17 October 1794.
40. Moore, Sheriffs, p. 13.
41. Blechynden, 'Diary', 21 December 1792. Blechynden thought the reduction should fall on the Scavenger, Deputy Scavenger and road repairers - 'idle people' whose work could be done on contact - and a 'good trustworthy Deputy' appointed 'at such a salary as should make it worth his while to attend his duty well'.
42. Tiretta used the phrase un pied dans l'etrière, a foot in the stirrup-strap, in regard to Blechynden's claims; Diary Ibid., 16 April 1793.
43. Tiretta later wrote to Cornwallis, but his request was refused; Diary Ibid., 24 July and 13 August 1793.
44. Diary Ibid., 5, 6, 7, 8, 19 and 11 February 1794. See also 8-9 September 1794: a friend, Roger Gale, suggested Tiretta write to the Justices to say he could not manage without a deputy. Blechynden replied that he would not ask him and 'would rather be beholden to a perfect Stranger' for Tiretta knew his distress and might well write 'spontaneously of his own accord'. Gale said laughingly that he'd get a job soon enough if he offered one of the Justices half the salary; his brother, Christopher agreed. Blechynden replied that he'd 'see the Justices d[amne]d first'.
45. Marshall, East Indian Fortunes, p. 189.
46. Blechynden, 'Diary', 5, 6, 7, 8, 11 and 19 February 1794, and passim.
47. However, see Diary Ibid., 29 May 1794, on crime.
48. Then court fines were used to pay for filling up pits and ditches, and employing peons, and later a corporal and six soldiers. In 1707 building works were required to be authorised. In 1727 a corporation of a mayor and nine aldermen was appointed by the Company. The zamindar of Calcutta (a post later held by Holwell) collected ground rents and was president of the mayor's court. In 1753 there was a survey of drains, and attempts to impose a house tax. In 1766 there were plans for more public works. In 1794, with the retrenchment already mentioned, control was passed to specially appointed Justices of the Peace. Work depended on private charity and fund-raising through lotteries (which became the major source of funds between 1793 and 1836). See A.K. Ray, A Short History of Calcutta Town and Suburbs (reprint from Census of India, 1901, Vol. VII, pt. I) N.R. Ray, ed., Calcutta, 1982, pp. 146 ff.
49. Though there are many reports of filth, dust and mud, work was carried out on drains and roads in the 1770s and 1780s (some of it by Tiretta and Blechynden). Srimanti Sreemani, Anatomy of a Colonial Town: Calcutta, 1756-1794, Calcutta, 1994, pp. 57 ff.
50. Blechynden, 'Diary', 17 May 1793.
51. Diary Ibid., 6 May 1793.
52. Diary Ibid., 6 December 1793.
53. Diary Ibid., 11 February 1794: referring to building works by Darly at the Bengal Bank.
54. Diary Ibid., 16 December 1793. See also the discussion of Dring's godown or warehouse (the front elevation) on 23 January 1793 which linked this professionalism to civic responsibility: 'Strange that when people are building they have no public spirit enough to lay out 150 or 200 Rs. more, to Ornament the Town they live in'. The plans were in fact accepted (24 January 1793). Later, King and Johnson agreed to a three-foot false facade of brickwork, at extra cost, so as to balance the placing of a window, which otherwise 'would look very ugly' (16 May 1793).
55. Diary Ibid., 29 November 1793. However, Aberdein's nickname was 'Vinegar' (9 December 1995).
56. Diary Ibid., 5, 6, 7, 8, 19 and 11 February 1794.
57. Diary Ibid., 30 January 1794.
58. Diary Ibid., 21 September 1794. The friend was Moss; the neighbour Doncaster, the rumour possibly unfounded.
59. Diary Ibid., 31 July and 7 August 1795. This was the wife of Radu Mohan Pal, executed on 10 August, with five Europeans, for burglary. According to Tiretta, she offered a lakh of rupees (Rs 100,000). On Chambers,
60. see Hickey, Memoirs, Vol. IV, pp. 135-39. (See also elsewhere in Vois III and IV. Hickey's harsh judgments were no doubt influenced by Chambers' deciding against him in a case in which he was personally involved.)
61. Memoirs, Ibid., 12 and 15 September 1794.
62. Translations of the terms are approximate. The gomashta mainly supervised work and wrote up accounts, the mistri was a work- and labour-manager or independent contractor, and the sarkar principally managed the finances (advances of wages and certification of work), both for business and the household. Obviously these roles could overlap in practice. Spear, Nabobs, pp. 51-53, translates banian (a partner and backer rather than employee) as 'steward', and sarkar as 'cash keeper and business manager'.
63. Blechynden, 'Diary', March-April 1793.
64. Diary Ibid., 19 and 22 March 1794.
65. Diary Ibid., 25 July 1794. Blechynden limited his claim 'lest he should begin the usual humming and hawing of blackeys', and said that the money was owed only among his workmen, 'because the paying of them off opens a large field for Dustoory [commission, taken from the wages not the employer]'. Kishen was agreeable by virtue of their old acquaintance.
66. Diary Ibid., 31 May 1792.
67. Compare Reverend James Newton, beating a farm hand for neglecting the cows, 6 December 1761, in Gavin Hannah, ed., The Deserted Village: The Diary of an Oxfordshire Rector James Newton of Nuneham Courtenay 1736-86, Stroud, 1992, p. 151.
68. Blechynden, 'Diary', 2 April 1794.
69. Diary Ibid., 15 February 1793.
70. Diary Ibid., 3 October 1792.
71. Diary Ibid., 27 June 1795. The incident concerned an alleged sexual dalliance by a concubine. Blechynden thought the father had ordered the boy to remain silent.
72. Diary Ibid., 19 July 1794.
73. Diary Ibid., 3 July 1792.
74. Diary Ibid., 23 December 1794. The informant and creditor was 'Byworb' Bose. See also 16 December 1795.
75. James Newton is described as 'benevolent, yet strict . . . . ready to administer the whip if necessary'! (Hannah, ed., Deserted Village, p. xi).
76. See Robb, 'Clash of Cultures?'.
77. Blechynden, 'Diary', 4 August 1793.
78. Diary Ibid., 5 December 1793. Blechynden described Lalu ('Lalloo' or 'Lilloo') as a 'Cheyt'. I assume that this means 'Cheyk' or 'Seth', sometimes equated with South Indian 'Chetti', 'Chettiar'. The excuse was plausible in that Lalu would have wished to avoid the trouble and expense of changing money.
79. Diary Ibid., 15 January and 29 May 1795; the bearer, 'with a Grin of Shame', said 'wagebee (true)'.
80. Diary Ibid., 31 December 1794. Cooper, the younger of two brothers, was sending away employees apparently at will. Blechynden intervened repeatedly, involving Rothman, and wearied of Cooper's conduct; see 12 January 1795. Cooper was himself soon dismissed. In July 1795 [Joseph?] Cooper made an offer for the types of the press, and tried to buy a share in the Chronicle (1, 5, 6, 13, 14 August 1795 and 1 September 1795). Then he proposed to work at the press on his own printing and with his own men, taking 25 per cent commission; the partners refused (11 November 1795). (This seems to be the story as told in the 'Diary', but the Cooper brothers are not always distinguished.
81. Graham Shaw, The South Asia and Burma Retrospective Bibliography, London, 1987, lists apparently independent publications by [Joseph?] Cooper in 1795 and 1796.)
82. Note the Chronicle's praise, quite probably written by Blechynden, for [Joseph] Cooper's Catalogue of the Calcutta Circulating Library, 1792: 'the arrangement of the subjects, and the printing, do credit to Mr. Cooper's professional abilities'
83. (Shaw, Bibliography, p. 241).
84. Blechynden, 'Diary', 7 January 1795.
85. Diary Ibid., 17 April 1794 and 14, 15 and 30 November 1794. Similarly, see his treatment of Kyroo, perpetually drunk, dismissed in favour of a substitute, Daulat, but soon reinstated,
86. and still drunk: Diary Ibid., 27 January 1795 and 3, 4, 9 and 10 February 1795.
87. See also Robb, 'Clash of Cultures?'.
88. Blechynden, 'Diary', 9 and 10 October 1794.
89. Diary Ibid., 29 March 1794 and 2 and 3 April 1794. Blechynden's attitude to doctors shows only a partial acceptance of professionalisation. In his own profession, he frequently mocked those who were 'uninformed' according to his own standards, and bemoaned clients' reluctance to take 'proper' advice. He regarded the doctor as an expert up to a point, and called him in extremis, but also doubted his skills, objected to his cost, and kept up a keen personal interest in medicine, confidently treating himself and his household and servants, and indeed his animals, while carefully recording dosage and outcomes in a spirit of inquiry. In this he was not so far from his Indian patients - or his professional clients - as he imagined.
90. Diary Ibid., 21, 22 and 24 December 1793.
91. Diary Ibid., 15, 16, 26 and 28 May 1794 and 13 September 1794. The sick groom, Ramjani, preferred 'a black doctor'. He died on 15 August (Ibid., 16 August 1794). See also Blechynden's treating of a peon's abscess (31 May 1794) and his writer Gopi's eye infection (6 February 1795).
92. Hickey, Meḿoirs, Vol. III, pp. 213-14.
93. Meḿoirs, Ibid., Vol. III, pp. 276-77.
94. Meḿoirs, Ibid., Vol. IV, pp. 140-41.
95. Meḿoirs, Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 239, 244, 246, 262, 275 and 292-93;
96. and Meḿoirs, Vol. III, pp. 150-51.
97. Add. Mss. 45578. 'Journal of the capture of the ship Godfrey and the sufferings of one of her unfortunate young officers, written by himself', 1780.
98. See Kenneth Maxwell, Pombal: Paradox of the Enlightenment, Cambridge, 1996.
99. Marshall, East Indian Fortunes, p. 23; quoting Supreme Court Reports, iv. 192-93 (note by Hyde).
100. See also Spear, Nabobs, pp. 61-62.
101. There is of course a huge and ever-growing literature on this terminology which it is not my purpose to review here. Clearly the meanings of words evolve; my present intention is to analyse the complex content of ideas of class, race and colour from Blechynden's perspective.
102. Blechynden, 'Diary', 24, 28 and 29 November 1794. Though he 'disliked this nonsense', he agreed to supply pictures to 'furnish the House for the Wedding-day'. The couple (presumably Christian, probably Eurasian) were John MacKenzie, a 'black boy', and Angelica Maria de Souza, Mrs Tiretta's 'slave girl'; the invitation was issued in the names of 'Mrs Bartram and Mrs Bateman'. MacKenzie worked in Colonel Murrey's office, and was later dismissed (2 February 1795).
103. Diary Ibid., 23 August 1794.
104. Diary Ibid., 1 July 1794, 10, 13 and 21 October 1794 and 23 November 1794.
105. Diary Ibid., 14 December 1794. The questioner was Hare. According to Blechynden, Mrs Soubise (if such she was, for he admitted to doubts that the couple were married) had earlier had a daughter 'as fair as alabaster' who died; possibly, he suspected, she had been the child of another father.
106. Diary Ibid., 22, 25 and 26 August 1794.
107. Diary Ibid., 24 October 1794 and 6 and 13 November 1794. She was the under-age ward of Herbert Harries.
108. Diary Ibid., 22, 25 and 26 August 1794. Part of Blechynden's objection to taking a wife was financial, and he made the same point about Tiretta's late nuptials. When Tiretta proposed giving up his horses and carriage as well as some servants, to make economies, Blechynden argued that a carriage was needed, for his age, and his wife. He reflected that Tiretta had kept his carriage through all his previous troubles (his bankruptcy), and that now he 'pays dear enough for the little c[ ]t he can enjoy';
109. Diary Ibid., 2 September 1794. The horses and carriage were put up for auction at a reserve of Rs 1,000; Blechynden offered to go and 'bid them up' (11 September 1794).
110. For example, Diary Ibid., 15 and 19 October 1794 and 31 May 1795.
111. Diary Ibid., 24 October 1794.
112. Diary Ibid., 15 and 20 October 1794. Blechynden was very distressed at Maria's treatment of the jackal, and was relieved when it was killed (to provide medicine).
113. Diary Ibid., 21 January 1795: 'I really have a great mind to do it [send Arthur to England] - when my pocket enables me - for surely my relations must have more liberality of Sentiment than to refuse to notice him because he is illegitimate - that is not his fault it is mine. 'When the dog of his friend, Wales, flew at Blechynden's daughter, Sally, and bit her severely, he feared her ear and throat would be scarred, which would 'be a great blemish - particularly in an illegitimate child'. (He 'would have taken effectual care he should never have bitten another', had it been his dog. Instead it was sent back on board ship.)
114. Diary Ibid., 4 March 1795. See also 31 December 1795: cost chiefly dissuaded him from sending the children to England at this time. Later they went and were well treated.
115. Compare Spear, Nabobs, pp. 63-64.
116. Blechynden, 'Diary', 29 April 1793.
117. Diary Ibid., 7 July 1793.
118. This differs from the usual view, derived mainly from Spear, Nabobs, that more English arrived and occupied more posts, producing social if not business estrangement and a 'double current, of increasing contact and knowledge of Indian life, and of increasing contempt of everything India' (p. 129). Spear blamed women, evangelical missionaries, and above all Cornwallis, for Europeanising the higher bureaucracy (Calcutta being different from Bombay or Surat where the Company had been weaker). The verdict is not supported by Spear's Appendix D, and assumes that 'great men' change conditions, that Indian influence on Europeans was 'superficial' (on clothes, food and vocabulary, not architecture or 'essential ideas'), and that there were given, 'closed' systems of Englishness, Islam and Hinduism; see pp. 22-23, 34-37, 47, 50, 63-64, 127-29, 141-44 and 146.
119. K.N. Chaudhuri, 'From the Barbarian and the Civilised to the Dialectics of Colour. An Archaeology of Self-identities', in Peter Robb, ed., Society and Ideology: Essays in South Asian History Presented to Professor K.A. Ballhatchet, Delhi, 1993.
120. On changing attitudes, with interesting parallels with and differences from the Indian case, see Rod Edmonds, Representing the South Pacific: Colonial Discourse from Cook to Gauguin, Cambridge, 1997, including pp. 51-62 for a finely nuanced reading of Captain Cook's much-debated death as colonial encounter.
121. Compare Clive Dewey, Anglo-Indian Attitudes: The Mind of the Indian Civil Service, London, 1993.
122. It may be noted that I came to qualify this through evidence, not merely by choosing a different plot.
123. In the area from Chitpur and Chowringhee Roads to the Circular Road, and Madan Dutt Road to Burial-ground Road, that is, Park Street, 2,145 out of 29,794 houses were owned by Europeans, though they held 12.9 per cent of the lots and 40.5 per cent of rental value; S.N. Mukherjee, Calcutta: Myths and History, Calcutta, 1977. True, the area of the survey (about a third of that covered by Upjohn's map) excluded the garden house areas and the central streets around the Old Fort and Great Tank, the two places in which Europeans were most concentrated, but they were steadily moving by this time towards Chowringhee. Of course the figure does not equate with occupancy. The Selections from the Records of the Government of Bengal, Calcutta, 1908, quoted by Sreemani, Anatomy, p. 165, state that in 1821 there were 5,430 two-storeyed houses, 8,800 one-storeyed, and 51,289 'native huts'.
124. Compare Jack Goody, The East in the West, Cambridge, 1996.
125. Blechynden, 'Diary', 7 August 1702.
126. Diary Ibid., 4, 6 and 7 January 1794. Tiretta had been reading Palladio, Vetruvius, Belidor, De l' Orme and others; Blechynden eventually wrote a reply for him which Tiretta found deficient in 'long rig-my-role'.
127. Dhriti Kanta Lahiri Choudhury, 'Trends in Calcutta Architecture, 1690-1903', in Sukanta Chaudhuri, ed., Calcutta. The Living City. Vol. 1, The Past, Calcutta, 1990.
128. David Woodward, Cordell D.K. Yee and Joseph E. Schwartzberg, 'Concluding Remarks', in J.B. Harley and D. Woodward, eds, The History of Cartography, Vol. 2, bk. 2, Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast, Chicago, 1994, pp. 843-49.
129. D.D.A. Harvey, Maps in Tudor England, London, 1993. Triangulation probably dated from William Saxton's country maps of the 1570s.
130. 'India's Development Regime', in Nicholas Dirks, ed., Colonialism and Culture, Ann Arbor, 1992.