Can the "halfway house" stand? Semidemocracy and elite theory in three Southeast Asian countries

Comparative Politics

Volumn 28, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 459-464

  Case, William F ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 25144477598     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/422052     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. Robert Pinkney, Democracy in the Third World (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1993), p. 89.
2. In pseudodemocracies, in contrast to semidemocracies, opposition parties have been so deeply crippled (as in New Order Indonesia and New Society Philippines) or prohibited outright (as in Vietnam) that all competitiveness has been squeezed from the electoral process. For brief discussions of pseudodemocracy, see Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Comparing Experiences with Democracy (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1989), pp. 7-8.
3. See also Michael Burton, Richard Gunther, and John Higley, "Introduction: Elite Transformations and Democratic Regimes," in John Higley and Richard Gunther, eds., Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 6-7.
4. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), p. 137.
5. Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, "Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies," in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds. Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy, vol. 4 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 7-11.
6. See Robert Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971); also Huntington, p. 7.
7. O'Donnell and Schmitter, p. 10. See also Adam Przeworski, "The Games of Transition," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992), pp. 109-110.
8. John A. Hall, "Consolidations of Democracy," in David Held, ed., Prospects for Democracy (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993), p. 275.
9. Burton et al., pp. 5-6.
10. Pinkney, p. 62.
11. O'Donnell and Schmitter, pp. 41 and 42. See also Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy, 5 (January 1994), 56.
12. On "freezing" democracy and "electrocratic rule," see Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 14-16. On " 'façade' democracies,"
13. see Laurence Whitehead, "The Alternative to 'Liberal Democracy': A Latin American Perspective," in Held, ed., p. 316.
14. See also Karen Remmer, "Exclusionary Democracy," Studies in Comparative International Development, 20 (Winter 1985-1986), esp. 69-76.
15. Pinkney, p. 121.
16. Burton et al., p. 8.
17. Ibid., pp. 10-11.
18. Ibid., p. 22.
19. See Michael G. Burton and John Higley, "Elite Settlements," American Sociological Review, 52 (June 1987).
20. See also Dankwart A. Rustow, "Transitions to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model," Comparative Politics, 2 (April 1970).
21. See Philippe C. Schmitter, "Liberation by Golpe," Armed Forces and Society, 2 (November 1975). See also O'Donnell and Schmitter, pp. 15-36.
22. Nancy Bermeo, "Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship," Comparative Politics, 24 (April 1992), 276.
23. O'Donnell and Schmitter, pp. 44, 53-56.
24. As examples, see Alvin Rabushka and Kenneth Shepsle, Politics in Plural Societies: A Theory of Democratic Instability (Columbus: Charles E. Merill, 1972); and
25. Juan J. Linz, The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Crisis, Breakdown, and Reequilibration (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978).
26. See Garry Rodan, "Preserving the One-Party State in Contemporary Singapore," in Kevin Hewison, Richard Robison, and Garry Rodan, eds., Southeast Asia in the 1990s: Authoritarianism, Democracy, and Capitalism (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1993), pp. 87-91.
27. See Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Democracy and Development (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992), pp. 50, 59.
28. Rodan, "One-Party State," p. 84.
29. Garry Rodan, The Political Economy of Singapore's Industrialization (Petaling Jaya: Forum, 1991), pp. 71-72.
30. Garry Rodan, "The Growth of Singapore's Middle Class and Its Political Significance," in Garry Rodan, ed., Singapore Changes Guard: Social, Political, and Economic Directions in the 1990s (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1993), p. 61.
31. "Non-confrontational, if not harmonious, labour-management relations may be said to have been achieved in Singapore by the end of the 1970s." Chris Leggett, "Singapore's Industrial Relations in the 1990s," in Rodan, ed., pp. 119, 126.
32. Rodan, "One-Party State," p. 100; and
33. Jon Quah, "Public Housing," in Jon S. T. Quah, Chan Heng Chee, and Seah Chee Meow, eds., Government and Politics of Singapore (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 248.
34. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 185-86.
35. Garry Rodan, "Singapore: Emerging Tensions in the 'Dictatorship of the Middle Class,' " Pacific Review, 5 (1992), 377.
36. Garry Rodan, "Introduction: Challenges for the New Guard and Directions in the 1990s," in Rodan, ed., p. xix.
37. James Cotton, "Political Innovation in Singapore: The Presidency, the Leadership, and the Party," in Rodan, ed., p. 10.
38. Rodan, "Introduction," pp. xx-xi.
39. Harold Crouch, Malaysian Government: Authoritarian Repression and Democratic Responsiveness (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, forthcoming).
40. See Michael Vatikiotis, "Decline and Disorder," Far Eastern Economic Review, Oct. 1, 1992, pp. 24-25.
41. Quoted in Zakaria Haji Ahmad, "Malaysia: Quasi-Democracy in a Divided Society," in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1989), p. 349.
42. Safeguards for Chinese business activities are contained in article 153, section 9 of the Malaysian constitution.
43. R. S. Milne, Government and Politics in Malaysia (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1967), p. 41.
44. James V. Jesudason, Ethnicity and the Economy: The State, Chinese Business, and Multinationals in Malaysia (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 52.
45. Quoted in Karl von Vorys, Democracy without Consensus: Communalism and Political Stability in Malaysia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), p. 419.
46. Quoted in Diane K. Mauzy, Barisan Nasional: Coalition Government in Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur: Marican and Sons, 1983), p. 47.
47. See Edmund Terence Gomez, Politics in Business: UMNO''s Corporate Investments (Kuala Lumpur: Forum, 1990).
48. Gordon P. Means. Malaysian Politics, 2nd ed. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1976), p. 403.
49. T. J. Pempel, "Conclusion: One-Party Dominance and the Creation of Regimes," in T. J. Pempel, ed., Uncommon Democracies: The One-Party Dominant Regimes (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990), pp. 349, 351.
50. Michael Leigh, "Politics, Bureaucracy, and Business in Malaysia: Realigning the Eternal Triangle," in Andrew J. MacIntyre and Kanishka Jayasuriya, eds., The Dynamics of Economic Policy Reform in South-East Asia and the South-West Pacific (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 118, 121.
51. New Straits Times, Nov. 7, 1993, pp. 1, 3.
52. Harold Crouch, "Malaysia: Neither Authoritarian nor Democratic," in Hewison et al., eds., p. 153.
53. William Case, "Semi-Democracy in Malaysia: Withstanding the Pressures for Regime Change," Pacific Affairs, 66 (Summer 1993), 198.
54. See Chai-Anan Samudavanija, "Thailand: A Stable Semi-Democracy," in Diamond et al., eds., p. 338;
55. Likhit Dhiravegin, Demi-Democracy: The Evolution of the Thai Political System (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1992);
56. Sombat Chantornvong and Montri Chenvidyakarn, "Constitutional Rule and the Institutionalization of Leadership and Security in Thailand," in Stephen Chee, ed., Leadership and Security in Southeast Asia: Institutional Aspects (Singapore: ISEAS, 1991), p. 156; and Huntington, p. 12.
57. Chai-Anan Samudavanija, "Stable Semi-Democracy," p. 338.
58. See also Anek Laothamatas, "Business and Politics in Thailand: New Patterns of Influence," Asian Survey, 28 (April 1988), 463-66.
59. Chai-Anan Samudavanija, "Political Institutionalization in Thailand: Continuity and Change," in Robert A. Scalapino, Seizaburo Sato, and Jusuf Wanandi, eds., Asian Political Institutionalization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), p. 256.
60. Anthony Milner, ed., Perceiving "Democracy" (Canberra: Academy of Social Sciences of Australia/Asia-Australia Institute, June 1994), p. 14.
61. Charles F. Keyes, Thailand: Buddhist Kingdom as Modern Nation-State (Boulder: Westview, 1987), p. 101.
62. Likhit, p. 209.
63. Chai-Anan, "Stable Semi-Democracy," p. 305.
64. See Kevin Hewison, "Of Regimes, State and Pluralities: Thai Politics Enters the 1990s," in Hewison et al., eds., pp. 165-166.
65. Sukhumbhand Paribatra, "State and Society in Thailand: How Fragile the Democracy?," Asian Survey, 33 (September 1993), 885.
66. Chai-Anan, "Continuity and Change," p. 247.
67. Keyes, p. 102.
68. Suchit Bunbongkarn, "The Thai Military and Its Role in Society in the 1990s," in Viberto Selochan, ed., The Military, the State, and Development in Asia and the Pacific (Boulder: Westview, 1991), p. 77.
69. Laothamatas, p. 452.
70. Philip Hirsch, "Socialization of the Military, or Militarization of the Society?," Far Eastern Economic Review, Sept. 10, 1987, p. 35.
71. Suchit Bunbongkarn, "The Thai Military's Efforts to Institutionalize Its Political Role," Pacific Review, 1 (1990), 403.
72. Chai-Anan, "Continuity and Change," p. 243.
73. Hirsch, p. 34.
74. See Shane P. Tarr, "The Nature of Military Intervention in the Countryside of Surat Thani, Southern Thailand," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 23 (July-September 1991), 44.
75. Keyes, p. 100.
76. Examining the military's charges against Chatichai, Duncan McCargo concludes that they amounted "to essentially the same complaint: that the Chatichai government had sought to strengthen the power of parliament at the expense of the army's institutional interests." Duncan McCargo, "Thailand's Democracy: The Long Vacation," Politics, 12 (1990), 5.
77. One detects, however, that the "theoretical optimism" that marked the literature on transitions is giving way to some anxiousness in the writings on consolidation. Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), p. 1. Guillermo O'Donnell laments that, whether democratization has been carried out from above or below, it now risks lapsing back into democradura through "slow" or "sudden death."
78. O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," p. 19.
79. Rueschemeyer et al., p. 58.
80. "Even though the antidemocratic legislation is still in place, the people are not in a hurry to change the government." Chua Beng Huat, "Beyond Formal Strictures: Democratization in Singapore," Asian Studies Review, 17 (July 1993), 106.
81. See Clark D. Neher, "Political Succession in Thailand," Asian Survey, 32 (July 1992).