The new geopolitics of disease: Between global health and global security

Geopolitics

Volumn 10, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 522-545

  Ingram, Alan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DISEASE PREVALENCE; GEOPOLITICS; SECURITY THREAT; SOVEREIGNTY;

EID: 24944515890     PISSN: 14650045     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14650040591003516     Document Type: Review

References (128)

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4. S. Dalby, Environmental Security (London: University of Minneapolis Press 2002).
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7. O. Waever, 'Securitization and Desecuritization', in Lipschutz (note 6) p. 54.
8. See Dalby (note 4).
9. This paraphrases a question posed by Fidler (note 1) in relation to health and foreign policy.
10. See web page for the UK Cabinet Office project on countries at risk of instability, (accessed 9 November 2004).
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15. J. Solana, A Secure Europe in a Better Word (Brussels: European Council 12 December 2003) p.11.
16. G.W Bush, The National Security Strategy of the United States of America (Washington, DC: White House 2002) p.21.
17. J. Straw, 'Foreword by the Foreign Secretary', in Foreign and Commonwealth Office, UK International Priorities: A strategy for the FCO (Norwich: HMSO 2003) p.1.
18. See World Bank website, (accessed 13 March 2005).
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28. H. Cleaver, 'The Zapatista Effect: The Internet and the Rise of an Alternative Political Fabric', Journal of International Affairs 51/ 2 (1998) pp.621-40.
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30. For a discussion in relation to health see C. McInnes, 'Health and Security Studies', in A. Ingram (ed.), Health, Foreign Policy and Security: Towards a Conceptual Framework for Research and Policy (London: Nuffield Trust and Nuffield Health and Social Services Fund UK Global Health Programme 2004) pp.44-60.
31. See BOND, Europe in the World: Essays on EU Foreign, Security and Development Policies (London: BOND 2003);
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34. Development Assistance Committee, A Development Lens on Terrorism Prevention: Key Entry Points for Action (Paris: OECD DAC Guidelines and Reference Series 2003) pp.18-19.
35. For a response, see Joint statement by members of the international Global Security and Development Network on the Development Assistance Committee Policy Statement and Reference Document: 'A Development Co-operation Lens on Terrorism Prevention: Key Entry Points for Action, at (accessed 5 November 2004);
36. International Development Act (2002) at (accessed 5 November 2004).
37. I. Kickbusch, 'The Future Value of Health', Perspectives in Health 2/1 (2001), available at , (accessed 5 November 2004).
38. S. Elbe, Strategic Implications of HIV/AIDS, Adelphi Paper 357 (Oxford: Oxford University Press for the IISS 2003) p.14.
39. WHO, World Health Report 2002: Reducing Risk, Promoting Healthy Life (Geneva: World Health Organisation 2002), (accessed 26 October 2004).
40. UNFPA, Annual Report 2003 (New York: United Nations Population Fund 2003), (accessed 5 November 2004).
41. J. Whitman, 'Political Processes and Infectious Diseases', in J. Whitman (ed.), The Politics of Emerging and Resurgent Infectious Diseases (Basingstoke: MacMillan 2001) pp.1-14.
42. G. Prins, 'AIDS and Global Security', International Affairs 80/5 (October 2004) pp.931-52.
43. For a summary see J.D. Mayer, 'Geography, Ecology and Emerging Infectious Diseases', Social Science and Medicine 50/7-8 (April 2000) pp.937-952;
44. see also L. Garrett, The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World Out of Balance (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux 1994).
45. M. Gandy and A. Zumla, The Return of the White Plague: Global Poverty and the 'New Tuberculosis (London: Verso 2003).
46. Mayer (note 37).
47. Whitman (note 35) p.1.
48. Elbe (note 32) pp.8-9.
49. National Intelligence Council (note 2) p.5.
50. See, for example, M. Schneider and M. Moodie, The Destabilizing impacts of HIV/AIDS (Washington DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies 2002).
51. ICG, HIV/AIDS as a Security Issue (Brussels: International Crisis Group 2001).
52. On these sessions see Prins (note 36),
53. M. David, 'Rubber Helmets: The Certain Pitfalls of Marshaling Security Council Resources to Combat AIDS in Africa', Human Rights Quarterly 23/3 (2001) pp.260-582;
54. the first, on 10 January 2000, considered the situation in Africa: the impact of AIDS on peace and security in Africa; the second, on 17 July 2000 considered the responsibility of the Security Council in the maintenance of international peace and security, HIV/AIDS and international peacekeeping operations, and issued Resolution 1308 (2000); available at (accessed 5 November 2004).
55. ICG (note 44) p.3.
56. Ibid., p.21.
57. National Intelligence Council, The Next Wave of HIV/AIDS: Nigeria, Ethiopia, Russia, India and China (Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency 2002).
58. Held et al., 'Introduction', in Global Transformations (note 24) pp.1-31.
59. See for example K. Lee, K. Buse and S. Fustukian, (eds), Health Policy in a Globalising World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2002);
60. J. Frenk and O. Gómez-Dantés, 'Globalisation and the challenges to health systems', British Medical Journal 325 (13 July 2002) pp.95-7;
61. L.C. Chen, T.G. Evans and R.A. Cash, 'Health as a Global Public Good', in I. Kaul, Y. Grunberg and M.A. Stern (eds), Global Public Goods: International Cooperation in the 21st Century (New York: Oxford University Press for the United Nations Development Programme 1999) pp.284-304.
62. Y. Al-Mazrou et al., 'A Vital Opportunity for Global Health: Supporting the World Health Organization at a Critical Juncture', The Lancet 350 (13 September 1997) pp.750-51.
63. D. Fidler, 'SARS: Political Pathology of the First Post-Westphalian Pathogen', Journal of Law Medicine and Ethics 31/4 (2003); subsequent page references to author's manuscript.
64. Ibid., p.9.
65. Ibid., p.16.
66. Ibid., p.9.
67. L. Garrett, Betrayal of Trust: The Collapse of Global Public Health (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2001);
68. A. Sen, Development as Freedom (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1999).
69. J. Watts, 'Chinese Walls Come Down', The Guardian 2020: Our World (11 September 2004) pp.26-7.
70. See Mayer (note 36).
71. C. Moreau, Summary, 200) at , (accessed 9 November 2004).
72. M. McCarthy, 'USA Lays out Aggressive Bioterrorism Programme', The Lancet 363 (8 May 2004) p.1532.
73. A recent summary of Bush's policies is provided by 'Bioterrorism: In Brief', Election Guide 2004, at (accessed 9 November 2004).
74. See H.W. Cohen, R.M. Gould and V.W. Sidel, 'The Pitfalls of Bioterrorism Preparedness: The Anthrax and Smallpox Experiences', American Journal of Public Health 94/10 (October 2004) pp.1667-71;
75. M. Margolis, 'A Mix-Up in Priorities', Newsweek International (5 April 2004), at (accessed 15 April 2004);
76. T.L. Guidotti, 'Public Health and Patriotic Doubts', Journal of Homeland Security (July 2002), at (accessed 9 November 2004);
77. D.S. Greenberg, 'War, Bioterrorism and the Political landscape', The Lancet 358 (22/29 December 2002) p.2137.
78. Garrett (note 56) pp.385-7.
79. Institute of Medicine Board on International Health, America's Vital Interest in Global Health (Washington, DC: National Academy Press 1997);
80. CSlS/CBACI, Conflict and Contagion: Health as a Global Security Challenge (Washington, DC: Chemical and Biological Arms Control Institute 2000);
81. J. Ban, Health, Security and US Global Leadership (Washington, DC: Chemical and Biological Arms Control Institute 2001);
82. J.S. Kassalow, Why Health is Important to US Foreign Policy (New York: Council on Foreign Relations and Milbank Memorial Fund 2001);
83. D.M. Fox and J.S. Kassalow, 'Making Health a Priority of US Foreign Policy, American Journal of Public Health 91/10 (October 2001) pp.1554-6.
84. R.E. Hunter and C.R. Anthony, 'Tapping the Power of Health in Foreign Policy', in E.R. Rubin, M. Osterweis and L.M. Lindeman (eds), Emergency Preparedness: Bioterrorism and Beyond (Washington, DC: Association of Academic Health Centers 2002), pp.67-79.
85. J.S. Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs 2004), p.x.
86. Ibid, p.5.
87. J. Cohen, 'Gates Foundation Rearranges Public Health Universe', Science 295/5562 (15 March) p.2000.
88. J.S. Morrison and T.Summers, 'United to Fight HIV/AIDS', The Washington Quarterly 26/4 (Autumn 2003) pp.177-93.
89. H. Waxman, 'Letter to HHS' (24 June 2004) and 'Letter to HHS on International AIDS Conference' (24 June 2004) at (accessed 9 November 2004);
90. United States House of Representatives Committee on Government Reform - Minority Staff Special Investigations Division, Politics and Science in the Bush Administration (Washington DC: House of Representatives 2003).
91. H. Bukhalter, 'The Politics of AIDS: Engaging Conservative Activists', Foreign Affairs (January/February 2004)
92. and H. Bukhalter, 'Trick or Treat?', Foreign Affairs (27 October 2004), both at (accessed 13 March 2005).
93. R.G.A. Feachem, 'Globalisation is Good for your Health, Mostly', British Medical Journal 323 (1 September 2001) pp.504-506.
94. Ibid., pp.504, 505.
95. See letters and Feachem's response at BMJ.com.
96. See, for example, R. Labote et al., Fatal Indifference: The G8, Africa and Global Health (Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press/ IDRC 2004);
97. O. Williams, 'The WTO, Trade Rules and Global Health Security', in Ingram (note 21) pp.76-90;
98. SEATINI/EQUINET, The WTO Global Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and Health Equity in Southern Africa (Harare: Equinet 2003);
99. G. Munot, World Trade Organisation Agreements: Implications for Equity and Health in Southern Africa (Harare: Equinet n.d.);
100. G.A. Cornia, 'Globalization and Health: Results and Options', WHO Bulletin 79 (2001) pp.834-42.
101. See, for a critique, J. Cohen, 'Worse than a Crime; a Mistake', The Lancet 361 (8 March 2003) pp.876-7 and Brundtland's response, p.877.
102. Commission on Macroeconomics and Health, Macroeconomics and Health: Investing in Health for Economics Development (Geneva: World Health Organisation 2001) p.8.
103. See I. Kickbusch, 'Influence and Opportunity: Reflections on the US Role in Global Public Health', Health Affairs 21 (2002) pp.131-41;
104. H. Waitzkin, 'Report of the WHO Commission on Macroeconomics and Health: Summary and Critique', The Lancet 361 (8 February 2003) pp.523-6.
105. See, for example, A. Buvé, S. Kalibalaand J. McIntyre, 'Stronger Health Systems for more Effective HIV/AIDS Prevention and Care', International Journal of Health Planning and Management 18/S1 (October 2003) pp.S41-S51;
106. Y. Mahendradhata et al., 'Strong Health Care Systems: a Prerequisite to Reach Global Tuberculosis Control Targets', International Journal of Health Planning and Management 18/S1 (October 2003) pp.S53-S65.
107. K. Lee and C. McInnes, Health, Foreign Policy and Security: A Discussion Paper (London: The Nuffield Trust and Nuffield Health and Social Services Fund UK Global Health Programme 2003) p.45.
108. See, in particular, A.T. Price-Smith, The Health of Nations: Infectious Disease, Environmental Change, and their Effects on National Security and Development (London: MIT Press, 2001).
109. Elbe (note 32) p.28.
110. Ibid., p.35.
111. R. Beaglehole and D. Yach, 'Globalisation and the Prevention and Control of Non-communicable Disease: the Neglected Chronic Diseases of Adults', The Lancet 362 (13 September 2003) pp.903-908.
112. See, for example, A.B. Gilmore and M. McKee, 'Moving East: How the Transnational Tobacco Industry Gained Entry to the Emerging Markets of the Former Soviet Union Part II: an Overview of Priorities and Tactics Used to Establish a Manufacturing Presence', Tobacco Control 13 (2004) pp.151-60.
113. Institute of Medicine, Neurological, Psychiatric, and Developmental Disorders: Meeting the Challenges in the Developing World (Washington, DC: National Academies Press 2001).
114. WHO, Constitution of the World Health Organisation (Geneva: WHO 1946).
115. Ottawa Declaration on Health Promotion (Geneva: WHO 1986), both at (accessed 9 November 2004).
116. This vision of health can itself be criticised for a failure to address issues of distributive justice. N. Daniels, Just Health Care (New York: Cambridge University Press 1985).
117. See Prins (note 36)
118. and B. Durodie, 'Facing the Possibility of Bioterrorism', Current Opinion in Biotechnology 15 (2004) pp.264-8.
119. Cited in M. Drexler, Secret Agents: The Menace of Emerging Infectious (Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press 2003) p.287.
120. K. Klaudt, 'The Political Causes and Solutions of the Current Tuberculosis Epidemic', in Whitman (note 35) p.99.
121. Prins (note 36) pp.939-40.
122. P. Farmer, 'Russia's Tuberculosis Catastrophe', 2001, p.1, at .
123. Price-Smith (note 79) p.178.
124. P. Farmer, Infections and Inequalities: the Modern Plagues (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press 1999) cited in K. Lee and H. Feldbaum, 'Public Health and Security', in Ingram (note 27) p.26.
125. L. Chen and V. Narasimhan, 'Human Security and Global Health', Journal of Human Development 4/2 (July 2003) pp.181-90.
126. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 1994: New Dimensions of Human Security (New York: Oxford University Press).
127. Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now: Protecting and Empowering People (New York: Commission on Human Security 2003).
128. D. Fidler, 'Germs, Norms and Power: Global Health's Political Revolution', Law, Social Justice and Global Development 1 (June 2004) at (accessed 9 November 2004).