Parvovirus B19 infection in pregnancy

Fetal and Maternal Medicine Review

Volumn 16, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 123-150

  Cohen, Bernard J ^a   Kumar, Sailesh ^b  

^a PUBLIC HEALTH ENGLAND   (United Kingdom)

^b QUEEN CHARLOTTE S AND CHELSEA HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ERYTHROCYTE ANTIGEN; GLOBOSIDE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN;

APLASTIC ANEMIA; ARTHROPATHY; BLOOD TRANSFUSION; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ERYTHEMA INFECTIOSUM; ERYTHROCYTE APLASIA; ERYTHROCYTE TRANSFUSION; FETUS DISEASE; HUMAN; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION; INFECTION RISK; INFECTION SENSITIVITY; LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS; LIFE CYCLE; NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE; PARVOVIRUS; PREGNANCY COMPLICATION; RASH; REVIEW; SEROCONVERSION; SKIN BIOPSY; VERTICAL TRANSMISSION; VIRUS GENOME; VIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS REPLICATION; X RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY;

EID: 24744446994     PISSN: 09655395     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0965539505001518     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. Berns KI, Bergoin M, Bloom M, Muzyczka N, Tal J, Tattersall P. Family Parvoviridae. In: van Regenmortel MHV, Fauquet CM, Bishop DHL et al (eds) Virus Taxonomy. Seventh Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. San Diego, Academic Press; 2000: 311-23.
2. Walsh CE, Liu JM, Xioa X, Young NS, Nienhuis AW, Samulski RJ. Regulated high level expression of a human γ-globulin gene introduced into erythroid cells by an adeno-associated virus vector. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1992; 89: 7257-261.
3. Rosenfield SJ, Yoshimoto K, Kajigaya S, Anderson S, Young NS, Field A et al. Unique region of the minor capsids protein of human parvovirus B19 is exposed on the virion surface. J Clin Invest 1992; 89: 2023-2029.
4. Salimans MMM, van Bussel MJAM, Brown CS, Spaan WJM. Recombinant parvovirus B19 capsids as a new substrate for detection of a B19-specific IgG and IgM antibodies by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Virol Methods 1992; 39: 247-58.
5. Bansal GP, Hatfield J, Dunn FE, Kramer AA, Brady F, Riggin CH et al. Candidate recombinant vaccine for human B19 parvovirus. J Infect Dis 1993; 167: 1034-44.
6. Erdman DD, Durigon EL, Qi-Yun W, Anderson LJ. Genetic diversity of human parvovirus B19: sequence analysis of the VP1/VP2 gene from multiple isolates. J Gen Virol 1996; 77: 2767-774.
7. Nguyen QT, Sifer C, Schneider V, Bernaudin B, Auguste V, Garbag-Chenon A. Detection of an erythrovirus sequence distinct from B19 in a child with acute anaemia. Lancet 1998; 352: 1524.
8. Servant A, Leperche S, Lallemand F, Marinho V, De Saint Maur G, Meritet JF et al. Genetic diversity within human erythroviruses: identification of three genotypes. J Virol 2002; 76: 9124-134.
9. Hokynar K, Söderlund-Venermo M, Pesonen M, Ranki A, Kiviluoto O, Partio EK et al. A new parvovirus genotype persistent in human skin. Virology 2002; 302: 224-28.
10. Cossart YE, Field AM, Cant B, Widdows D. Parvovirus-like particles in human sera. Lancet 1975; i: 72-73.
11. Woolf AD, Campion GV, Chishick A, Wise S, Cohen BJ, Klouda PT et al. Clinical manifestations of human parvovirus B19 in adults. Arch Int Med 1989; 149: 1153-156.
12. Denning DW, Amos A, Rudge P, Cohen BJ. Neuralgic amyotrophy due to parvovirus infection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1987; 50: 641-42.
13. Schmid ML, McWhinney PHM, Will EJ. Parvovirus B19 and glomerulonephritis in a healthy adult. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132: 682.
14. Martínez-Martínez P, Marañón A. Infection by human parvovirus B19: "gloves and socks" papular purpuric syndrome. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2000; 36: 209-210.
15. Loong TC Li, Coyle PV, Anderson MJ, Allen GE, Connolly JH. Human serum parvovirus associated vasculitis. Postgrad Med J 1986; 62: 493-94.
16. Shiraishi H, Umetsu K, Yamamoto H, Hatakeyama Y, Yaegashi N, Sugamura K. Human parvovirus (HPV/B19) infection with purpura. Microbiol Immunol 1989; 33: 369-72.
17. Enders G, Dötsch J, Bauer W, Nützenadel H, Hengel D, Haffner G et al. Life-threatening parvovirus B19-associated myocarditis and cardiac transplantation as possible therapy: two case reports. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 26: 355-58.
18. Brown KE, Young NS, Johnson ML. Molecular, cellular and clinical aspects of parvovirus B19 infection. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 1994; 16: 1-31.
19. McLellan NJ, Rutter N. Hereditary spherocytosis in sisters unmasked by parvovirus infection. Postgrad Med J 1987; 63: 49-50.
20. Cohen H, Walker H, Delhanty DA, Lucas SB, Huehns ER. Congenital spherocytosis, B19 parvovirus infection and inherited interstitial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 8. Br J Haematol 1991; 78: 251-257.
21. Frickhofen N, Young NS. Persistent parvovirus B19 infections in humans. Microb Pathogen 1989; 7: 319-27.
22. Edwards JMB, Kessel I, Gardner SD, Eaton BR, Pollock TM, Fleck DG, Gibson P, Woodroof M, Porter AD. A search for a characteristic illness in children with serological evidence of viral or toxoplasma infection. J. Infect 1981; 3: 316-23.
23. Cohen BJ, Buckley MM. The prevalence of antibody to human parvovirus B19 in England and Wales. J Med Microbiol 1988; 25: 151-153.
24. Nunoue T, Okochi K, Mortimer PP, Cohen BJ. Human parvovirus B19 and erythema infectiosum. J Pediatr 1985; 107: 38-40.
25. Anderson ML, Lewis E, Kidd IM, Hall SM, Cohen BJ. An outbreak of erythema infectiosum associated with human parvovirus infection. J Hyg Camb 1984; 93: 85-93.
26. Plummer FA, Hammond GW, Forward K, Selka L, Thompson LM, Jones SE, Kidd IM, Anderson MJ. An erythema infectiousum-like illness caused by human parvovirus infection. N Eng J Med 1985; 313: 74-79.
27. Tuckerman JG, Brown T, Cohen BJ. Erythema infectiosum in a village primary school: clinical and virological studies. J R Coll Gen Pract 1986; 36: 267-70.
28. White DG, Woolf AD, Mortimer PP, Cohen BJ, Blake DR, Bacon PA. Human parvovirus arthropathy. Lancet 1985; i: 419-21.
29. Reid DM, Reid TMS, Brown T, Rennie JAN, Eastmond CJ. Human parvovirus-associated arthritis: a clinical and laboratory description. Lancet 1985; i: 422-25.
30. Kinney JS, Anderson LJ, Farrar J, Strikas RA, Kumar ML, Kliegman RA et al. Risk of adverse outcomes of pregnancy after human parvovirus B19 infection. J Infect Dis 1988; 157: 663-67.
31. Gay NJ, Hesketh LM, Cohen BJ, Rush M, Bates C, Morgan-Capner P et al. Age specific antibody prevalence to parvovirus B19: how many women are infected in pregnancy? Commun Dis Rep Rev 1994; 4: R104-R107.
32. Knott PD, Welply GA, Anderson MJ. Serologically proved intrauterine infection with parvovirus. Br Med J 1984; 289: 1660.
33. Brown T, Anand A, Ritchie LD, Clewley JP, Reid TMS. Intrauterine parvovirus infection associated with hydrops fetalis. Lancet 1984; ii: 1033-1034.
34. Matsunaga Y, Matsukara T, Yamazaki S, Siagase M, Izumi R. Hydrops fetalis caused by intrauterine human parvovirus infection. Japan J Med Sci Biol 1987; 40: 165-69.
35. Anderson MJ, Khousam MN, Maxwell DJ, Gould SJ, Happerfield LC, Smith WJ. Human parvovirus B19 and hydrops fetalis. Lancet 1988; i: 535.
36. Maeda H, Shimokawa H, Satoh S, Nakano H, Nunoue T. Nonimmunologic hydrops fetalis resulting from intrauterine human parvovirus B19 infection: report of two cases. Obstet Gynecol 1988; 72: 482-85.
37. Schwarz TF, Roggendorf M, Hottentrager B, Deinhardt F, Enders G, Gloning KP et al. Human parvovirus B19 infection in pregnancy. Lancet 1988; ii: 566-67.
38. Bond PR, Caul EO, Usher J, Cohen BJ, Clewley JP, Field AM. Intrauterine infection with human parvovirus. Lancet 1986; ii: 448-49.
39. Naides SJ, Weiner CP. Antenatal diagnosis and palliative treatment of non-immune hydrops fetalis secondary to fetal parvovirus B19. Prenat Diagn 1989; 9: 105-14.
40. Moore L, Chambers HM, Foreman AR, Yee Khong T. A report of human parvovirus infection in hydrops fetalis: first Australian cases confirmed by serology and immunohistology. Med J Aust 1993; 159: 344-45.
41. Jordan JA. Identification of human parvovirus B19 infection in idiopathic nonimmune hydrops fetalis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 174: 37-42.
42. Public Health Laboratory Service Working Party on Fifth Disease. Prospective study of human parvovirus B19 in pregnancy. Br Med J 1990; 300: 1166-170.
43. Rodis JF, Hovick TJ, Quinn DL, Rosengren SS, Tattersall P. Human parvovirus infection in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1988; 72: 733-738.
44. Yaegashi N, Niinuma T, Chisaka H, Uehara S, Okamura S, Shinkawa O et al. Serologic study of human parvovirus B19 infection in pregnancy in Japan. J Infect 1999; 38: 30-35.
45. Miller E, Fairley CK, Cohen BJ, Seng C. Immediate and long term outcome of human parvovirus B19 infection in pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1988; 105: 174-178.
46. Enders M, Weidner A, Zoellner I, Searle K, Enders G. Fetal morbidity and mortality after acute human parvovirus B19 infection in pregnancy: prospective evaluation of 1018 cases. Prenat Diagn 2004; 24: 513-18.
47. Gratacós E, Torres P-J, Vidal J, Antolín E, Costa J, Jiménez de Anta MT et al. The incidence of human parvovirus B19 infection during pregnancy and its impact on perinatal outcome. J Infect Dis 1995; 171: 360-63.
48. Harger JH, Adler S, Koch WC, Harger GF. Prospective evaluation of 618 pregnant women exposed to parvovirus B19: risks and symptoms. Obstet Gynecol 1998; 91: 413-20.
49. Anderson MJ, Higgins PG, Davis LR, Willman JS, Jones SE, Kidd IM et al. Experimental parvoviral infection in humans. J Infect Dis 1985; 152: 257-65.
50. Kerr JR, Parvovirus B19 infection. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1996; 15: 10-29.
51. Mortimer PP, Humphries RK, Moore JG, Purcell RH, Young, NS. A human parvovirus-like virus inhibits haematopoietic colony formation in vitro. Nature 1983; 302: 426-29.
52. Brown KE, Anderson SM, Young NS. Erythrocyte P antigen: cellular receptor for B19 parvovirus. Science 1993; 262: 114-17.
53. Brown KE, Hibbs JR, Gallinella G, Anderson SM, Lehman ED, McCarthy P, Young NS. Resistance to parvovirus B19 infection due to lack of virus receptor (erythrocyte P antigen). N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 1192-196.
54. Ozawa K, Ayub J, Kajigaya S, Shimida T, Young N. The gene encoding the non-structural protein of B19 (human) parvovirus may be lethal in transfected cells. J Virol 1988; 62: 2884-889.
55. Potter CG, Potter AC, Hatton CSR, Chapel HM, Anderson MJ, Pattison JR, Tyrrell DAJ, Higgins PG, Willman JS, Parry HF, Cotes PM. J. Clin. Invest 1987; 79: 1486-492.
56. Nagai K, Morohoshi T, Kudoh T, Yoto Y, Suzuki N, Matsunaga Y. Transient erythroblastopenia of childhood with megakaryocytopenia associated with human parvovirus B19 infection. Br J Haematol 1992; 80: 131-32.
57. Saunders PWG, Reid MM, Cohen BJ. Human parvovirus induced cytopenias; a report of five cases. Br J Haematol 1986; 63: 407-410.
58. Woolf AD, Cohen BJ. Parvovirus B19 and chronic arthritis - causal or casual association. Ann Rheum Dis 1995; 54: 535-36.
59. Porter HJ, Quantrill AM, Fleming KA. B19 parvovirus infection of myocardial cells. Lancet 1988; ii: 535-36.
60. Morey AL, Nicolini U, Welch CR, Economides D, Chamberlain PF, Cohen BJ. Parvovirus B19 infection and transient fetal hydrops. Lancet 1991; 337: 496.
61. Soothill P. Intrauterine bloodtransfusion for non-immune hydrops fetalis due to parvovirus B19 infection. Lancet 1990; 336: 121-22.
62. Van Elasacker-Niele AMW, Salimans MMM, Weiland HT, Vermey-Keers C, Anderson MJ, Versteeg J. Fetal pathology in human parvovirus B19 infection. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 96: 768-75.
63. Pattison JR. A new parvovirus: similarities between monkeys and humans. J Clin Invest 1994; 93: 1354.
64. Brown KE, Green SW, de Mayolo JA, Bellanti JA, Smith SD, Smith TJ et al. Congenital anaemia after transplacental B19 parvovirus infection. Lancet 1994; 343: 895-96.
65. Enders G. Viral infections of the neonate, other than rubella. In: Collier LH, Balows A, Susman M (eds) Topley & Wilson's Microbiology and Microbial Infections, 9th ed., Arnold; London, 1997; 873-15.
66. Brown KE, Young NS, Alving BA, Barbosa LH. Parvovirus B19: implications for transfusion medicine. Summary of a workshop. Transfusion 2001; 41: 130-35.
67. Zanella A, Rossi F, Cesana C, Foresti A, Nador F, Binda AS et al. Transfusion-transmitted human parvovirus B19 infection in a thalassemic patient. Transfusion 1995; 35: 769-72.
68. Kelly HA, Siebert D, Hammond R, Leydon J, Kiely P, Maskell W. The age-specific prevalence of human parvovirus immunity in Victoria, Australia compared with other parts of the world. Epidemiol Infect 2000; 124: 449-57.
69. Cassinotti P, Schultze D, Wieczorek K, Schonenberger R, Siegl G. Parvovirus B19 infection during pregnancy and development of hydrops fetalis despite the evidence for pre-existing anti-B19 antibody: how reliable are serological results? Clin Diagn Virol 1994; 2: 87-94.
70. Bremner JAG, Beard S, Cohen BJ, Alimenti A, Cantiniaux B, Levy J. Secondary infection with parvovirus B19 in an HIV-positive patient. AIDS 1993; 7: 1131-132.
71. Searle K, Guilliard C, Enders G. Parvovirus B19 diagnosis in pregnant women: quantification of IgG antibody levels (IU/ml) with reference to the international parvovirus B19 standard serum. Infection 1996; 25: 32-34.
72. Cohen BJ, Mortimer PP, Pereira MS. Diagnostic assays with monoclonal antibodies for the human serum parvovirus-like virus (SPLV). J Hyg Camb 1983; 91: 113-30.
73. Anderson LJ, Tsou C, Parker R, Chorba TL, Wulff H, Tattersall P, Mortimer PP. Detection of antibodies and antigens of human parvovirus B19 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Clin Microbiol 1986; 24: 522-26.
74. Westmoreland D, Cohen BJ. Human parvovirus B19 infected fetal liver as a source of antigen for a radioimmunoassay for B19 specific IgM in clinical samples. J Med Virol 1991; 33: 1-5.
75. Cohen BJ, Field AM, Gudnadottir S, Beard S, Barbara JAJ. Blood donor screening for parvovirus B19. J Virol Methods 1990; 30: 233-38.
76. Cohen BJ, Couroucé AM, Schwarz T, Okochi K, Kurtzman GJ. Laboratory infection with parvovirus B19. J Clin Path 1988; 41: 1027-1028.
77. Brown CS, Salimans MMM, Noteborn MHM, Weiland HT. Antigenic parvovirus B19 coat proteins VP1 and Vp2 produced in large quantities in a baculovirus expression system. Virus Res 1990; 15: 197-211.
78. Kajigaya S, Fujii H, Field A, Anderson S, Rosenfield S, Anderson LJ et al. Self-assembled B19 parvovirus capsids, produced in a baculovirus system, are antigenically and immunogenically similar to native virions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991; 88: 4646-650.
79. de Ory F, Guisasola ME, Téllez A, Domingo CJ. Comparitive evaluation of commercial methods for the detection of parvovirus B19-specific immunoglobilin M. Seridiagn Immunother Infect Dis 1996; 8: 117-20.
80. Brown CS, van Bussel MJAWM, Wassenaar ALM, van Elsacker-Niele A-MW, Weiland HT, Salimans MM. An immunofluorescence assay for the detection of parvovirus B19 IgG and IgM antibodies based on recombinant viral antigen. J Virol Methods 1990; 29: 53-62.
81. Hilfenhaus S, Cohen BJ, Bates C, Kajigaya S, Young NS, Zambon M et al. Antibody capture haemadherence tests for parvovirus B19-specific IgM and IgG. J Virol Methods 1993; 45: 27-37.
82. Schwarz TF, Jäger G. A recombinant immunoblot and ELISA for detection of acute parvovirus B19. Zbl Bakt 1994; 280: 526-33.
83. Palmer P, Pallier C, Leruez-Ville M, Deplanche M, Morinet F. Antibody response to human parvovirus B19 in patients with primary infection by immunoblot assay with recombinant proteins. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1996; 3: 236-38.
84. Ferguson M, Walker D, Cohen B. Report of a collaborative study to establish the International Standard for parvovirus B19 serum IgG. Biologicals 1997; 25: 283-88.
85. Söderlund M, Brown CS, Spaan WJM, Hedman L, Hedman K. Epitope type-specific IgG responses to capsids proteins VP1 and VP2 of human parvovirus B19. J Infect Dis 1995; 172: 1431-436.
86. Sato H, Takakura F, Kojima E, Fukada K, Okochi K, Maeda Y. Screening of blood donors for human parvovirus B19. Lancet 1995; 346: 1237-238.
87. Clewley JP, Cohen BJ, Field AM. Detection of parvovirus B19 DNA, antigen and particles in the human fetus. J Med Virol 1987; 23: 367-76.
88. Porter HJ, Khong TY, Evans MF, Chan VT-W, Fleming KA. Parvovirus as a cause of hydrops fetalis: detection by in situ hybridisation. J Clin Pathol 1988; 41: 381-83.
89. Cassinotti P, Burtonboy G, Fopp M, Siegl G. Evidence for persistence of human parvovirus B19 DNA in bone marrow. J Med Virol 1997; 53: 229-32.
90. Söderlund M, von Essen R, Haapasaari J, Kiistala U, Kiviuoto O, Hedman K. Persistence of parvovirus B19 DNA in synovial membranes of young patients with and without chronic arthropathy. Lancet 1997; 349: 1063-1065.
91. Vuorinen T, Lammintausta K, Kotilainen P, Nikkari S. Presence of parvovirus B19 DNA in chronic urticaric and healthy skin. J Clin Virol 2002; 25: 217-21.
92. Clewley JP. Polymerase Chain Reaction assay of parvovirus B19 DNA in clinical specimens. J Clin Microbiol 1989; 27: 2647-651.
93. Saldanha J, Lelie N, Yu MW, Heath A, the B19 collaborative study group. Establishment of the first World Health Organisation International Standard for human parvovirus B19 DNA nucleic acid amplification techniques. Vox Sang 2002; 82: 24-31.
94. Braham S, Gandhi J, Beard S, Cohen BJ. Evaluation of the Roche LightCycler parvovirus B19 quantification kit for the diagnosis of parvovirus B19 infections. J Clin Virol 2004; 31: 5-10.
95. Hokynar K, Norja P, Laitenen H, Palomäki P, Garbarg-Chenon A et al. Detection and differentiation of human parvovirus variants by commercial quantitative real-time PCR tests. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 2013-2019.
96. Zerbini M, Musiani M, Gentilomi G, Venturoli S, Gallinella G, Morandi R et al. Symptomatic parvovirus B19 infection of one fetus in a twin pregnancy. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 17: 262-63.
97. Truyen U, Parrish CR. Epidemiology and pathology of autonomous Parvoviruses. In: Faisst S, Rommelaere J (eds). Parvoviruses from molecular biology to pathology and therapeutic uses. Contrib Microbiol Basel, Karger, 2000; 4: 149-62.
98. Henle G, Henle W. The virus as an etiologic agent of infectious mononucleosis. In: Epstein MA, Achong BG (eds). The Epstein-Barr virus. New York: Springer-Verlag 1979, 297-320.
99. Kurtz JB, Anderson MJ. Cross-reactions in rubella and parvovirus specific IgM tests. Lancet 1985; ii: 1356.
100. McCreedy BJ, Callaway TH. Laboratory design and workflow. In: Persing DH, Smith TF, Tenover FC, White TJ (eds.) Diagnostic molecular microbiology. Principles and applications Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology 1993, 149-59.
101. Anand A, Gray ES, Brown T, Clewley JP, Cohen BJ. Human parvovirus infection in pregnancy and hydrops fetalis. New Eng J Med 1987; 316: 183-86.
102. Nerlich A, Schwarz TF, Roggendorf M, Roggendorf H, Ostermeyer E, Schramm T, Gloning K-P. Parvovirus B19-infected erythroblasts in fetal cord blood. Lancet 1991; 337: 310.
103. Wright C, Hinchcliffe SA, Taylor C. Fetal pathology in intrauterine death due to parvovirus B19 infection. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996; 103: 133-36.
104. Hall SM. Parvovirus B19 and pregnancy. Rev Med Microbiol 1990; 1: 160-67.
105. Morgan-Capner P, Crowcroft NS. Guidelines on the management of, and exposure to, rash illness in pregnancy. Commun Dis Public Health 2002; 5: 59-71.
106. Best JM, Sutherland S. Diagnosis and prevention of congenital and perinatal infections. Br Med J 1990; 301: 888-89.
107. Peters MT, Nicolaides KH. Cordocentesis for the diagnosis and treatment of human fetal parvovirus infection. Obstet Gynecol 1990; 75: 501-504.
108. Frickhofen N, Abkowitz JL, Safford M, Berry M, Antunez-de-Mayolo J, Astrow A et al. Persitent B19 parvovirus infection in patients with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1): a treatable cause of anemia in AIDS. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113: 926-33.
109. Pont J, Pchhammer-Stockl E, Chott A, Popow-Kraupp T, Kienzer H, Gerhard P et al. Recurrent granulocytic aplasia as clinical presentation of a persistent parvovirus B19 infection. Br J Haematol 1992; 80: 160-65.
110. Harder TC, Hufnagel M, Zahn K, Beutel K, Schmitt H-J, Ullman U et al. New LightCylcer PCR for rapid and sensitive quantification of parvovirus B19 DNA guides therapeutic decision-making in relapsing infections. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39: 4413-419.
111. Crowcroft NS, Roth CE, Cohen BJ, Miller E. Guidance for control of parvovirus B19 infection in healthcare settings and the community. J Public Health Med 1999; 21: 439-46.
112. Adler SP, Manganello A-MA, Koch WC, Hempfling SH, Best AM. Risk of human parvovirus B19 infections among school and hospital employees during endemic periods. J Infect Dis 1993; 168: 361-68.
113. Anon. Risks associated with human parvovirus B19 infection. MMWR 1989; 38: 81-6.
114. Mari G, Deter RL, Carpenter RL, Rahman F, Zimmerman R, Moise KJ et al. Noninvasive diagnosis by Doppler ultrasonography of fetal anemia due to maternal red-cell alloimmunization. N Eng J Med 2000; 342: 9-14.
115. Maxwell DJ, Johnson P, Neales K, Allan L, Knott P. Fetal blood sampling and pregnancy loss in relation to indication. Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 1991; 98: 892-97.
116. Fairley CK, Smoleniec JS, Caul OE, Miller E. Observational study of intrauterine transfusions on outcome of fetal hydrops after parvovirus B19 infection. Lancet 1995; 346: 1335-337.
117. Sheikh AU, Ernest JM, O'Shea M. Long-term outcome in fetal hydrops from parvovirus B19 infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992; 167: 337-41.
118. Brown KE, Young NS. The simian parvoviruses. Rev Med Microbiol 1997; 7: 211-18.
119. Davis RW, Simon M, Davidson N. Electron microscope heteroduplex methods for mapping regions of base sequence homology in nucleic acids. Methods Enzymol 1971; 21: 413-28.