The urban poor and militant Hinduism in early twentieth-century Uttar Pradesh

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 31, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 879-918

  Gooptu, Nandini ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 2442764743     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0026749x00017194     Document Type: Article

References (170)

1. C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion, 1770-1870 (Cambridge, 1983).
2. S. B. Freitag, Collective Action and Community: Public Arenas and the Emergence of Communalism in North India (Berkeley, 1989).
3. Ibid., p. 199.
4. D. A. Thomas, 'Lucknow and Kanpur, 1880-1920: Stagnation and development under the Raj', South Asia (New series), V, 2 (1982), 68-80; Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen, chapter 12; C. A. Bayly, The Local Roots of Indian Politics: Allahabad, 1880-1920 (Oxford, 1975), chapter II; H. R. Neville, Allahabad: A Gazetteer: Volume XXIII of the District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (Allahabad, 1911), pp. 62-6; H. R. Neville, Benares: A Gazetteer: Volume XXVI of the District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (Allahabad, 1909), pp. 56-64.
5. D. A. Thomas, 'Lucknow and Kanpur, 1880-1920: Stagnation and development under the Raj', South Asia (New series), V, 2 (1982), 68-80; Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen, chapter 12; C. A. Bayly, The Local Roots of Indian Politics: Allahabad, 1880-1920 (Oxford, 1975), chapter II; H. R. Neville, Allahabad: A Gazetteer: Volume XXIII of the District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (Allahabad, 1911), pp. 62-6; H. R. Neville, Benares: A Gazetteer: Volume XXVI of the District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (Allahabad, 1909), pp. 56-64.
6. D. A. Thomas, 'Lucknow and Kanpur, 1880-1920: Stagnation and development under the Raj', South Asia (New series), V, 2 (1982), 68-80; Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen, chapter 12; C. A. Bayly, The Local Roots of Indian Politics: Allahabad, 1880-1920 (Oxford, 1975), chapter II; H. R. Neville, Allahabad: A Gazetteer: Volume XXIII of the District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (Allahabad, 1911), pp. 62-6; H. R. Neville, Benares: A Gazetteer: Volume XXVI of the District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (Allahabad, 1909), pp. 56-64.
7. D. A. Thomas, 'Lucknow and Kanpur, 1880-1920: Stagnation and development under the Raj', South Asia (New series), V, 2 (1982), 68-80; Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen, chapter 12; C. A. Bayly, The Local Roots of Indian Politics: Allahabad, 1880-1920 (Oxford, 1975), chapter II; H. R. Neville, Allahabad: A Gazetteer: Volume XXIII of the District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (Allahabad, 1911), pp. 62-6; H. R. Neville, Benares: A Gazetteer: Volume XXVI of the District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (Allahabad, 1909), pp. 56-64.
8. D. A. Thomas, 'Lucknow and Kanpur, 1880-1920: Stagnation and development under the Raj', South Asia (New series), V, 2 (1982), 68-80; Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen, chapter 12; C. A. Bayly, The Local Roots of Indian Politics: Allahabad, 1880-1920 (Oxford, 1975), chapter II; H. R. Neville, Allahabad: A Gazetteer: Volume XXIII of the District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (Allahabad, 1911), pp. 62-6; H. R. Neville, Benares: A Gazetteer: Volume XXVI of the District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (Allahabad, 1909), pp. 56-64.
9. I. D. Derbyshire, Opening up the Interior: The impact of railways on the north Indian economy and society, 1860-1914', Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1985, p. 387.
10. Report of the United Provinces Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee, 1929-50 [hereafter BEC] (Allahabad, 1930), Volume I, Report, p. 63; Volume H, Evidence, p. 48: Memorandum on the indigenous banking system of the United Provinces, by M. L. Shah; p. 96: Memorandum on indigenous bankers, by B. T. Thakur; L. C. Jain, Indigenous Banking in India (London, 1929), p. 44; Bayly, The Local Roots of Indian Politics, pp. 229-31.
11. Report of the United Provinces Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee, 1929-50 [hereafter BEC] (Allahabad, 1930), Volume I, Report, p. 63; Volume H, Evidence, p. 48: Memorandum on the indigenous banking system of the United Provinces, by M. L. Shah; p. 96: Memorandum on indigenous bankers, by B. T. Thakur; L. C. Jain, Indigenous Banking in India (London, 1929), p. 44; Bayly, The Local Roots of Indian Politics, pp. 229-31.
12. Report of the United Provinces Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee, 1929-50 [hereafter BEC] (Allahabad, 1930), Volume I, Report, p. 63; Volume H, Evidence, p. 48: Memorandum on the indigenous banking system of the United Provinces, by M. L. Shah; p. 96: Memorandum on indigenous bankers, by B. T. Thakur; L. C. Jain, Indigenous Banking in India (London, 1929), p. 44; Bayly, The Local Roots of Indian Politics, pp. 229-31.
13. Report of the United Provinces Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee, 1929-50 [hereafter BEC] (Allahabad, 1930), Volume I, Report, p. 63; Volume H, Evidence, p. 48: Memorandum on the indigenous banking system of the United Provinces, by M. L. Shah; p. 96: Memorandum on indigenous bankers, by B. T. Thakur; L. C. Jain, Indigenous Banking in India (London, 1929), p. 44; Bayly, The Local Roots of Indian Politics, pp. 229-31.
14. BEC, Volume IV, Evidence, pp. 42-3: Reply of the Upper India Chamber of Commerce to the questionnaire of the U.P. Banking Enquiry Committee.
15. Report of the Industrial Finance (S. N. Pochkhanawala) Committee, U.P., 1934 (Allahabad, 1935), stated that small-scale urban industries were financed almost entirely by moneylenders and dealers.
16. Reports of the Department of Industries, U.P.: 1929-30 to 1938-39, passim. The growing concentration of oil mills in the towns, replacing rural oil crushers, from the 1920s onwards, is mentioned in Report of the Industries Reorganisation (J. P. Srivastava) Committee, 1932 (Allahabad, 1934).
17. Reports of the Department of Industries, U.P.: 1929-30 to 1938-39, passim. The growing concentration of oil mills in the towns, replacing rural oil crushers, from the 1920s onwards, is mentioned in Report of the Industries Reorganisation (J. P. Srivastava) Committee, 1932 (Allahabad, 1934).
18. For instance, between 1933-34 and 1937-38, the annual production of hosiery goods in U.P. increased from 144,908 lbs. to 800,136 lbs. Report of the Department of Industries, U.P., 1935-36, p. 4; 1937-38, p. 6; Between 1934 and 1939, annual mustard oil production in U.P. increased from 748,000 maunds to 1,218,000 maunds. Memorandum of the U.P. Government submitted to the All India National Planning Committee, 1939 (Allahabad, 1940). MSS. Eur. E 251/10, India Office Records, London. The production of groundnut oil crushing mills of Kanpur alone increased from 2,000 maunds in 1934-35 to 95,000 maunds in 1937-38. Report of the Department of Industries, U.P., 1937-38, p. 12.
19. For instance, between 1933-34 and 1937-38, the annual production of hosiery goods in U.P. increased from 144,908 lbs. to 800,136 lbs. Report of the Department of Industries, U.P., 1935-36, p. 4; 1937-38, p. 6; Between 1934 and 1939, annual mustard oil production in U.P. increased from 748,000 maunds to 1,218,000 maunds. Memorandum of the U.P. Government submitted to the All India National Planning Committee, 1939 (Allahabad, 1940). MSS. Eur. E 251/10, India Office Records, London. The production of groundnut oil crushing mills of Kanpur alone increased from 2,000 maunds in 1934-35 to 95,000 maunds in 1937-38. Report of the Department of Industries, U.P., 1937-38, p. 12.
20. For instance, between 1933-34 and 1937-38, the annual production of hosiery goods in U.P. increased from 144,908 lbs. to 800,136 lbs. Report of the Department of Industries, U.P., 1935-36, p. 4; 1937-38, p. 6; Between 1934 and 1939, annual mustard oil production in U.P. increased from 748,000 maunds to 1,218,000 maunds. Memorandum of the U.P. Government submitted to the All India National Planning Committee, 1939 (Allahabad, 1940). MSS. Eur. E 251/10, India Office Records, London. The production of groundnut oil crushing mills of Kanpur alone increased from 2,000 maunds in 1934-35 to 95,000 maunds in 1937-38. Report of the Department of Industries, U.P., 1937-38, p. 12.
21. For instance, between 1933-34 and 1937-38, the annual production of hosiery goods in U.P. increased from 144,908 lbs. to 800,136 lbs. Report of the Department of Industries, U.P., 1935-36, p. 4; 1937-38, p. 6; Between 1934 and 1939, annual mustard oil production in U.P. increased from 748,000 maunds to 1,218,000 maunds. Memorandum of the U.P. Government submitted to the All India National Planning Committee, 1939 (Allahabad, 1940). MSS. Eur. E 251/10, India Office Records, London. The production of groundnut oil crushing mills of Kanpur alone increased from 2,000 maunds in 1934-35 to 95,000 maunds in 1937-38. Report of the Department of Industries, U.P., 1937-38, p. 12.
22. Report of the Town Improvement Trusts (J. F. Sale) Committee, 1935 (Lucknow, 1936), p. 5.
23. C. J. Baker, An Indian Rural Economy, 1880-1951: the Tamilnad Countryside (Oxford, 1984), pp. 379-80, chapters 4-5 passim.
24. Between 1881 and 1921, the total population of U.P. increased from 45,034,574 to 46,669,865, or by 1,635,291. Between 1921 and 1931, U.P. provincial population increased to 49,776,754, or by 3,106,889. Census of India, 1951, Volume II, Part I-A: Report (Allahabad, 1953), p. 25.
25. Census of India, 1931, Volume XVIII, Part I: Report (Allahabad, 1933), pp. 127-8.
26. Ibid., pp. 141-2; The 1931 Census reported very significant increases in urban population due to migration, p. 127. A survey of a random sample of 300 families of mill workers in Kanpur, conducted in 1939-40, found that 219 of them came to Kanpur between 1921 and 1941, 31 had lived in the town since their birth, and only 49 had migrated between 1904 and 1920. The date of migration of one family was not available. 'Preliminary draft of the pro forma report on the enquiry into family budgets and living conditions of the mill workers at Cawnpore, 1939-40', prepared by the Bureau of Economic Intelligence, U.P. Manuscript held at the Record Room of the Northern India Employers' Association, Kanpur.
27. D. N. Mazumdar, Social Contours of an Industrial City: Social Survey of Kanpur, 1954-56 (Westport, Conn., 1960), p. vii; C. Joshi, 'Kanpur Textile Labour: Some structural features of formative years', Economic and Political Weekly, Special Number (November 1981), 1827; A. Niehoff, Factory Workers in India (Milwaukee, 1959), p. 34.
28. D. N. Mazumdar, Social Contours of an Industrial City: Social Survey of Kanpur, 1954-56 (Westport, Conn., 1960), p. vii; C. Joshi, 'Kanpur Textile Labour: Some structural features of formative years', Economic and Political Weekly, Special Number (November 1981), 1827; A. Niehoff, Factory Workers in India (Milwaukee, 1959), p. 34.
29. D. N. Mazumdar, Social Contours of an Industrial City: Social Survey of Kanpur, 1954-56 (Westport, Conn., 1960), p. vii; C. Joshi, 'Kanpur Textile Labour: Some structural features of formative years', Economic and Political Weekly, Special Number (November 1981), 1827; A. Niehoff, Factory Workers in India (Milwaukee, 1959), p. 34.
30. Ram Shankar Shukla, 'Karmchari Sangathan aur Andolan Kyun?', Kanpur Bazar Karmchari Federation: Rajat Jayanti Smarika (Kanpur, 1977), Editorial article (pages not numbered). The concentration of lower caste groups in low-paid urban manual occupations is widely prevalent throughout north India. See, for instance, R. G. Fox, From Zamindar to Ballot Box: Community Change in a North Indian Market Town (New York, 1969), pp. 139-40.
31. Ram Shankar Shukla, 'Karmchari Sangathan aur Andolan Kyun?', Kanpur Bazar Karmchari Federation: Rajat Jayanti Smarika (Kanpur, 1977), Editorial article (pages not numbered). The concentration of lower caste groups in low-paid urban manual occupations is widely prevalent throughout north India. See, for instance, R. G. Fox, From Zamindar to Ballot Box: Community Change in a North Indian Market Town (New York, 1969), pp. 139-40.
32. Percentage increase in population between 1921 and 1931 was 15.6% in Lucknow, 12.4% in Kanpur, 2.9% in Benares, 19.4% in Allahabad. In the same period, provincial industrial employment in urban areas increased from 251 to 270 per thousand people, amounting to a 7.6% increase. Census of India, 1931, Volume XVIII, Part I: Report, pp. 141-2, 393.
33. Ibid., pp. 51-2.
34. BEC, Volume II, Evidence, pp. 371-91, 392-411, 418-24: Surveys of smallscale urban industries of Benares, Lucknow and Allahabad; R. C. Srivastava, 'Survey of the Hosiery Industry in U.P.', Department of Industries and Commerce, U.P., Bulletin No. 2 (New series), 1939; C. Ackroyd and Devaraj, 'The Cawnpore Wholesale Clothing Trade', Bureau of Economic Intelligence, U.P., Bulletin No. 1, 1938.
35. BEC, Volume II, Evidence, pp. 371-91, 392-411, 418-24: Surveys of smallscale urban industries of Benares, Lucknow and Allahabad; R. C. Srivastava, 'Survey of the Hosiery Industry in U.P.', Department of Industries and Commerce, U.P., Bulletin No. 2 (New series), 1939; C. Ackroyd and Devaraj, 'The Cawnpore Wholesale Clothing Trade', Bureau of Economic Intelligence, U.P., Bulletin No. 1, 1938.
36. BEC, Volume II, Evidence, pp. 371-91, 392-411, 418-24: Surveys of smallscale urban industries of Benares, Lucknow and Allahabad; R. C. Srivastava, 'Survey of the Hosiery Industry in U.P.', Department of Industries and Commerce, U.P., Bulletin No. 2 (New series), 1939; C. Ackroyd and Devaraj, 'The Cawnpore Wholesale Clothing Trade', Bureau of Economic Intelligence, U.P., Bulletin No. 1, 1938.
37. BEC, Volume II, Evidence, pp. 371-91, 392-411, 418-24: Surveys of smallscale urban industries of Benares, Lucknow and Allahabad.
38. N. Gooptu, 'Caste and Labour: Untouchable social movements in urban Uttar Pradesh in the early twentieth century', in P. Robb (ed.), Dalit Movements and the Meanings of Labour in India (Delhi, 1993), pp. 277-98.
39. Ibid.
40. N. Kumar, The Artisans of Banaras: Popular Culture and Identity, 1880-1986 (Princeton, 1988), pp. 19-21; Thomas, 'Lucknow and Kanpur 1880-1920', pp. 68-72; Neville, Allahabad: A Gazetteer, pp. 62-4; G. Pandey, 'Economic dislocation in nineteenth-century eastern Uttar Pradesh: Some implications of the decline of artisanal industry in colonial India', in P. Robb (ed.), Rural South Asia: Linkages, Change and Development (London, 1983), pp. 98-9.
41. N. Kumar, The Artisans of Banaras: Popular Culture and Identity, 1880-1986 (Princeton, 1988), pp. 19-21; Thomas, 'Lucknow and Kanpur 1880-1920', pp. 68-72; Neville, Allahabad: A Gazetteer, pp. 62-4; G. Pandey, 'Economic dislocation in nineteenth-century eastern Uttar Pradesh: Some implications of the decline of artisanal industry in colonial India', in P. Robb (ed.), Rural South Asia: Linkages, Change and Development (London, 1983), pp. 98-9.
42. N. Kumar, The Artisans of Banaras: Popular Culture and Identity, 1880-1986 (Princeton, 1988), pp. 19-21; Thomas, 'Lucknow and Kanpur 1880-1920', pp. 68-72; Neville, Allahabad: A Gazetteer, pp. 62-4; G. Pandey, 'Economic dislocation in nineteenth-century eastern Uttar Pradesh: Some implications of the decline of artisanal industry in colonial India', in P. Robb (ed.), Rural South Asia: Linkages, Change and Development (London, 1983), pp. 98-9.
43. N. Kumar, The Artisans of Banaras: Popular Culture and Identity, 1880-1986 (Princeton, 1988), pp. 19-21; Thomas, 'Lucknow and Kanpur 1880-1920', pp. 68-72; Neville, Allahabad: A Gazetteer, pp. 62-4; G. Pandey, 'Economic dislocation in nineteenth-century eastern Uttar Pradesh: Some implications of the decline of artisanal industry in colonial India', in P. Robb (ed.), Rural South Asia: Linkages, Change and Development (London, 1983), pp. 98-9.
44. Reports of the Department of Industries, U.P., 1929-30, 1930-31, 1931-32.
45. 27 For instance, a pamphlet on the ahirs, published from Benares in 1927, mentioned that Muslim masons and bricklayers were increasing in number and posing a threat to those ahirs who worked in the construction industry: Baijnath Prasad Yadav, Ahir Jati ki Niyamavali (Benares, 1927), p. 39.
46. Report of the Town Improvements Trusts (H. J. Crosthwaite) Committee, 1929 (Allahabad, 1929), pp. 11, 13.
47. Report of the Town Improvement Trusts (J. F. Sale) Committee, 1935, p. 41.
48. One official report acknowledged that the 'poorer classes of the population in these areas come in for the major share of demolition'. The report further stated that, on being uprooted from one place, the poor, 'after an intervening period of considerable discomfort . . . provide themselves with similar undesirable quarters elsewhere'. Report of the Town Improvements Trusts (H. J. Crosthwaite) Committee, 1929, P. 11. Another report admitted that 'the poor toss about from place to place and wherever they go they have to live in uncongenial atmosphere'. Allahabad Municipal Board, Annual Report, 1941-42, p. 34.
49. One official report acknowledged that the 'poorer classes of the population in these areas come in for the major share of demolition'. The report further stated that, on being uprooted from one place, the poor, 'after an intervening period of considerable discomfort . . . provide themselves with similar undesirable quarters elsewhere'. Report of the Town Improvements Trusts (H. J. Crosthwaite) Committee, 1929, P. 11. Another report admitted that 'the poor toss about from place to place and wherever they go they have to live in uncongenial atmosphere'. Allahabad Municipal Board, Annual Report, 1941-42, p. 34.
50. As a result of the extension of franchise, in Kanpur, for instance, in 1923, the number of registered voters increased by 300% over the previous voter list. However, this still only enfranchised a small propertied section. Thus, out of a total population of 216,436 enumerated in the 1921 census, only 19,395 people or 8% of the population formed the electorate of the local council in 1923. Kanpur Municipal Board, Annual Report, 1922-23, p. 3.
51. Hugh Tinker, The Foundations of Local Self-government in India, Pakistan and Burma (London, 1954), pp. 164, 317, 322.
52. Ibid., p. 317; The declining importance of direct taxes and the preponderance of indirect taxes in U.P. municipalities is well documented in Note, dated 2.11.39. File No. 243/1939. Box No. 213. Municipal Department, Government of U.P., U.P. State Archives, Lucknow.
53. Benares Municipal Board, Annual Reports, 1928-29, p. 8, 1934-35, P. 13, 1935-36, p. 14; Lucknow Improvement Trust, Annual Report, 1929, pp. 21-2; Kanpur Municipal Board, Annual Reports, 1938-39, pp. 16-17, 1941-42, pp. 13-14; District Magistrate, Kanpur to Chairman, Kanpur Municipal Board, letter no. 1266, dated 9 December 1938. File no. 1-35/1938. Department XXIII. Municipal. Kanpur Collectorate, English Record Room; Note from District Magistrate, Kanpur to City Magistrates, dated 10 June 1937. File (not numbered) on miscellaneous correspondences of the District Magistrate, 1937-38. Kanpur Collectorate, English Record Room.
54. Benares Municipal Board, Annual Reports, 1928-29, p. 8, 1934-35, P. 13, 1935-36, p. 14; Lucknow Improvement Trust, Annual Report, 1929, pp. 21-2; Kanpur Municipal Board, Annual Reports, 1938-39, pp. 16-17, 1941-42, pp. 13-14; District Magistrate, Kanpur to Chairman, Kanpur Municipal Board, letter no. 1266, dated 9 December 1938. File no. 1-35/1938. Department XXIII. Municipal. Kanpur Collectorate, English Record Room; Note from District Magistrate, Kanpur to City Magistrates, dated 10 June 1937. File (not numbered) on miscellaneous correspondences of the District Magistrate, 1937-38. Kanpur Collectorate, English Record Room.
55. Benares Municipal Board, Annual Reports, 1928-29, p. 8, 1934-35, P. 13, 1935-36, p. 14; Lucknow Improvement Trust, Annual Report, 1929, pp. 21-2; Kanpur Municipal Board, Annual Reports, 1938-39, pp. 16-17, 1941-42, pp. 13-14; District Magistrate, Kanpur to Chairman, Kanpur Municipal Board, letter no. 1266, dated 9 December 1938. File no. 1-35/1938. Department XXIII. Municipal. Kanpur Collectorate, English Record Room; Note from District Magistrate, Kanpur to City Magistrates, dated 10 June 1937. File (not numbered) on miscellaneous correspondences of the District Magistrate, 1937-38. Kanpur Collectorate, English Record Room.
56. Benares Municipal Board, Annual Reports, 1928-29, p. 8, 1934-35, P. 13, 1935-36, p. 14; Lucknow Improvement Trust, Annual Report, 1929, pp. 21-2; Kanpur Municipal Board, Annual Reports, 1938-39, pp. 16-17, 1941-42, pp. 13-14; District Magistrate, Kanpur to Chairman, Kanpur Municipal Board, letter no. 1266, dated 9 December 1938. File no. 1-35/1938. Department XXIII. Municipal. Kanpur Collectorate, English Record Room; Note from District Magistrate, Kanpur to City Magistrates, dated 10 June 1937. File (not numbered) on miscellaneous correspondences of the District Magistrate, 1937-38. Kanpur Collectorate, English Record Room.
57. Benares Municipal Board, Annual Reports, 1928-29, p. 8, 1934-35, P. 13, 1935-36, p. 14; Lucknow Improvement Trust, Annual Report, 1929, pp. 21-2; Kanpur Municipal Board, Annual Reports, 1938-39, pp. 16-17, 1941-42, pp. 13-14; District Magistrate, Kanpur to Chairman, Kanpur Municipal Board, letter no. 1266, dated 9 December 1938. File no. 1-35/1938. Department XXIII. Municipal. Kanpur Collectorate, English Record Room; Note from District Magistrate, Kanpur to City Magistrates, dated 10 June 1937. File (not numbered) on miscellaneous correspondences of the District Magistrate, 1937-38. Kanpur Collectorate, English Record Room.
58. Benares Municipal Board, Annual Reports, 1928-29, p. 8, 1934-35, P. 13, 1935-36, p. 14; Lucknow Improvement Trust, Annual Report, 1929, pp. 21-2; Kanpur Municipal Board, Annual Reports, 1938-39, pp. 16-17, 1941-42, pp. 13-14; District Magistrate, Kanpur to Chairman, Kanpur Municipal Board, letter no. 1266, dated 9 December 1938. File no. 1-35/1938. Department XXIII. Municipal. Kanpur Collectorate, English Record Room; Note from District Magistrate, Kanpur to City Magistrates, dated 10 June 1937. File (not numbered) on miscellaneous correspondences of the District Magistrate, 1937-38. Kanpur Collectorate, English Record Room.
59. Allahabad Municipal Board, Annual Report, 1940-41, p. 31.
60. Figures taken from the Annual Reports on Municipal Administration and Finances in U.P., 1917-18 and 1927-28. Statement II, showing the income of the municipalities from different sources.
61. Inspector General of Police, U.P. to the Deputy Secretary, U.P., letter no. VI-44-29, dated 25 June 1929. Serial no. 3. Proceedings no. 1-28, September 1930, p. 2. File no. 478/1929. Box 192. Police Department. Government of U.P., U.P. State Archives, Lucknow.
62. Extracts from a note by the Superintendent of Police, Kanpur, cited in File no. 412/1931. Box no. 206. Police Department. Government of U.P., U.P. State Archives, Lucknow.
63. District Magistrate, Kanpur to Chief Secretary, U.P. letter no. 48-B/32, dated 26 February 1932. File no. 12/1931. Department XX. Police. Allahabad Commissioner's Office Records.
64. The District Magistrate of Kanpur, for instance, considered the stationing of police guards and armed pickets in the bazars to be 'the pivot on which the whole scheme of policing in the city rests'. District Magistrate, Kanpur to Chief Secretary, U.P., letter no. 94-B/32, dated 6 April 1932, ibid The importance of deployment of the armed police as a general policy is also stressed in a letter from the Commissioner, Allahabad Division to the Chief Secretary, U.P. (letter no. and date illegible), ibid.
65. Report of the Police Reorganisation (Sita Ram) Committee, U.P., 1947-48 (Allahabad, 1948), Volume I, p. 33.
66. Shyam Manohar Pandey, The Hindu Oral Epic Loriki (The Tale of Lorik and Canda) (Allahabad, 1979), pp. 9-10, 15-21; Shyam Manohar Pandey, The Hindi Oral Epic Canaini (The Tale of Lorik and Canda) (Allahabad, 1982), pp. 19-24, 28.
67. Shyam Manohar Pandey, The Hindu Oral Epic Loriki (The Tale of Lorik and Canda) (Allahabad, 1979), pp. 9-10, 15-21; Shyam Manohar Pandey, The Hindi Oral Epic Canaini (The Tale of Lorik and Canda) (Allahabad, 1982), pp. 19-24, 28.
68. W. Crooke, The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh (Calcutta, 1896), Volume I, pp. 50-6; Volume III, p. 261; Volume IV, pp. 139-41.
69. W. Crooke, The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh (Calcutta, 1896), Volume I, pp. 50-6; Volume III, p. 261; Volume IV, pp. 139-41.
70. W. Crooke, The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh (Calcutta, 1896), Volume I, pp. 50-6; Volume III, p. 261; Volume IV, pp. 139-41.
71. D. M. Coccari, 'Protection and Identity: Banaras's Bir Babas as neighbourhood guardian deities', in S. B. Freitag (ed.), Culture and Power in Banaras: Community, Performance and Environment, 1800-1980 (Berkeley, 1989), pp. 136-7; Shyam Manohar Pandey, The Hindi Oral Epic Loriki, passim; Shyam Manohar Pandey, The Hindi Oral Epic Canaini, passim.
72. D. M. Coccari, 'Protection and Identity: Banaras's Bir Babas as neighbourhood guardian deities', in S. B. Freitag (ed.), Culture and Power in Banaras: Community, Performance and Environment, 1800-1980 (Berkeley, 1989), pp. 136-7; Shyam Manohar Pandey, The Hindi Oral Epic Loriki, passim; Shyam Manohar Pandey, The Hindi Oral Epic Canaini, passim.
73. D. M. Coccari, 'Protection and Identity: Banaras's Bir Babas as neighbourhood guardian deities', in S. B. Freitag (ed.), Culture and Power in Banaras: Community, Performance and Environment, 1800-1980 (Berkeley, 1989), pp. 136-7; Shyam Manohar Pandey, The Hindi Oral Epic Loriki, passim; Shyam Manohar Pandey, The Hindi Oral Epic Canaini, passim.
74. Coccari, 'Protection and Identity', p. 136.
75. M. S. A. Rao, Social Movements and Social Transformation: A Study of Two Backward Classes Movements in India (Delhi, 1979), pp. 132-47.
76. These histories and genealogies were popularized through numerous caste journals and caste histories. For instance, Mannalal Abhimanyu, Ahir Vamsa Pradip (Benares, vikrami samvat 1982, c. A.D. 1925); Yadukul Sarvasya (Benares, vikramabda 1985, c. A.D. 1928); Gap Jati Kshatriya Varna Mein Hai: Arthat 'Brahman Sammelan' ke anargal pralap ka muhtor jawab (Benares, 4th edition, 1974; first published in 1929); Rajit Singh, Yaduvamsa Prakash (Revised edition, Benares, 1983. Originally published c. 1925-26). Journals include Kalwar Kshatriya Mitra, Kaiwar Kesri, Yadavesh, Yadav.
77. These histories and genealogies were popularized through numerous caste journals and caste histories. For instance, Mannalal Abhimanyu, Ahir Vamsa Pradip (Benares, vikrami samvat 1982, c. A.D. 1925); Yadukul Sarvasya (Benares, vikramabda 1985, c. A.D. 1928); Gap Jati Kshatriya Varna Mein Hai: Arthat 'Brahman Sammelan' ke anargal pralap ka muhtor jawab (Benares, 4th edition, 1974; first published in 1929); Rajit Singh, Yaduvamsa Prakash (Revised edition, Benares, 1983. Originally published c. 1925-26). Journals include Kalwar Kshatriya Mitra, Kaiwar Kesri, Yadavesh, Yadav.
78. These histories and genealogies were popularized through numerous caste journals and caste histories. For instance, Mannalal Abhimanyu, Ahir Vamsa Pradip (Benares, vikrami samvat 1982, c. A.D. 1925); Yadukul Sarvasya (Benares, vikramabda 1985, c. A.D. 1928); Gap Jati Kshatriya Varna Mein Hai: Arthat 'Brahman Sammelan' ke anargal pralap ka muhtor jawab (Benares, 4th edition, 1974; first published in 1929); Rajit Singh, Yaduvamsa Prakash (Revised edition, Benares, 1983. Originally published c. 1925-26). Journals include Kalwar Kshatriya Mitra, Kaiwar Kesri, Yadavesh, Yadav.
79. These histories and genealogies were popularized through numerous caste journals and caste histories. For instance, Mannalal Abhimanyu, Ahir Vamsa Pradip (Benares, vikrami samvat 1982, c. A.D. 1925); Yadukul Sarvasya (Benares, vikramabda 1985, c. A.D. 1928); Gap Jati Kshatriya Varna Mein Hai: Arthat 'Brahman Sammelan' ke anargal pralap ka muhtor jawab (Benares, 4th edition, 1974; first published in 1929); Rajit Singh, Yaduvamsa Prakash (Revised edition, Benares, 1983. Originally published c. 1925-26). Journals include Kalwar Kshatriya Mitra, Kaiwar Kesri, Yadavesh, Yadav.
80. These histories and genealogies were popularized through numerous caste journals and caste histories. For instance, Mannalal Abhimanyu, Ahir Vamsa Pradip (Benares, vikrami samvat 1982, c. A.D. 1925); Yadukul Sarvasya (Benares, vikramabda 1985, c. A.D. 1928); Gap Jati Kshatriya Varna Mein Hai: Arthat 'Brahman Sammelan' ke anargal pralap ka muhtor jawab (Benares, 4th edition, 1974; first published in 1929); Rajit Singh, Yaduvamsa Prakash (Revised edition, Benares, 1983. Originally published c. 1925-26). Journals include Kalwar Kshatriya Mitra, Kaiwar Kesri, Yadavesh, Yadav.
81. Ibid.
82. Yadav, Ahir Jati Ki Niyamavali, passim. Similar ideas were also expressed in Singh, Yaduvamsa Prakash, pp. 104-10; 'Smriti kal me Kalwar', Kalwar Kshatriya Mitra (Allahabad), 2, 17, August 1921, p. 151.
83. Yadav, Ahir Jati Ki Niyamavali, passim. Similar ideas were also expressed in Singh, Yaduvamsa Prakash, pp. 104-10; 'Smriti kal me Kalwar', Kalwar Kshatriya Mitra (Allahabad), 2, 17, August 1921, p. 151.
84. Yadav, Ahir Jati Ki Niyamavali, passim. Similar ideas were also expressed in Singh, Yaduvamsa Prakash, pp. 104-10; 'Smriti kal me Kalwar', Kalwar Kshatriya Mitra (Allahabad), 2, 17, August 1921, p. 151.
85. Yadav, Ahir Jati Ki Niyamavali, passim. Similar ideas were also expressed in Singh, Yaduvamsa Prakash, pp. 104-10; 'Smriti kal me Kalwar', Kalwar Kshatriya Mitra (Allahabad), 2, 17, August 1921, p. 151.
86. Yadav, Ahir Jati ki Niyamavali, pp. 1-28. Similar themes echoed in Singh, Yaduvamsa Prakash, pp. 104-10.
87. Yadav, Ahir Jati ki Niyamavali, pp. 1-28. Similar themes echoed in Singh, Yaduvamsa Prakash, pp. 104-10.
88. G. Pandey, The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India (Delhi, 1990), pp. 90-4, 166; Rao, Social Movements and Social Transformation, p. 134.
89. G. Pandey, The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India (Delhi, 1990), pp. 90-4, 166; Rao, Social Movements and Social Transformation, p. 134.
90. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen, passim.
91. Gooptu, 'Caste and Labour'.
92. Smarika: Sn Ramlila Committee, Daraganj, Prayag 1979 (Allahabad, 1979), p. 41.
93. An article in the silver jubilee souvenir of the Palledar [manual workers and coolies in the bazars] Union in the main Kanpur wholesale cloth market, describing the self-image of the manual labourers, extolled the virtues of the 'jujharu vyakti palledar' or the 'fighting palledar', who is the pivot of bazar life as the carrier and transporter of goods, who never fears the hardest of physical labour and is fired with a fighting spirit. Shiv Shankar Lal Trivedi, 'Jujharu vyakti palledar', Kapra Bazar Palledar Union: Rajat Jayanti Smarika (Kanpur, 1986), pp. 41-2.
94. The argument of being martial groups in the past was deployed quite explicitly in the 1920s, especially by the caste uplift movements of those low caste groups, like the pasis, khatiks or mallahs, who had been declared to be 'criminal' by the British Government in some parts of U.P. It was argued that the British condemned them as criminal because they had resisted the British, especially during the 1857 uprising, in keeping with their martial tradition. A. P. Chaudhri, Pichhre tatha dalit barg ke mahan neta Rai Ram Charan ka jivan chant tatha unke sankshipta karya (Lucknow, 1973), pp. 38-42.
95. Trivedi, 'Jujharu vyakti palledar'.
96. Evidence taken by the Kanpur riots enquiry commission of 1931 included many references to the fact that local labourers acted as strongmen or toughs for a number of firms in the Kanpur markets and were patronized by the merchants. See, for instance, the 'Extract from the note of SP., Cawnpore, dated April 3, 1930', cited in File no. 412/1931. Box no. 206. Police Department , Government of U.P., U.P. State Archives, Lucknow.
97. Mckim Marriott, 'The feast of love', in Milton Singer (ed.), Krishna: Myths, Rites and Attitudes (Honolulu, 1966), p. 210.
98. Ibid., p. 206, 207.
99. Shyam Manohar Pandey, The Hindi Oral Epic Loriki, pp. 10-11.
100. W. Crooke, in his studies of the religious practices of various caste groups, cited Holi as the special festival of pastoral lower caste groups, especially cowherd castes like ahirs. Crooke also mentions the ahir belief of descent from Lord Krishna. Crooke, Tribes and castes, Volume I, pp. 50, 64; W. Crooke, An Introduction to the Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (Allahabad, 1894), p. 389.
101. W. Crooke, in his studies of the religious practices of various caste groups, cited Holi as the special festival of pastoral lower caste groups, especially cowherd castes like ahirs. Crooke also mentions the ahir belief of descent from Lord Krishna. Crooke, Tribes and castes, Volume I, pp. 50, 64; W. Crooke, An Introduction to the Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (Allahabad, 1894), p. 389.
102. Marriott, 'Feast of love', pp. 200-12.
103. Yadavesh, (Benares), 2, 1, Special Holi issue, vikrami samvat 1993, c. A.D. 1936, passim.
104. Ibid., pp. 22-3.
105. Ibid., pp. 3-5, 22. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore, pp. 387-8.
106. Ibid., pp. 3-5, 22. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore, pp. 387-8.
107. Interviews, in the Kanpur wholesale markets of Generalganj, Naughara, Collectorganj and Kahu Kothi, with shop employees and bazar labourers: Ram Kripal Yadav (President of the Kapra Bazar Palledar Union in 1987), Ramfer Khalifa, Ram Shankar Shukla (Secretary of the Kanpur Bazar Karmchari Union in 1987) and Datti Ram Yadav.
108. The enquiry instituted by the Congress into the Kanpur riots of 1931 reported that Hindus and Muslims both celebrated the Holi festival in the past, but that by the 1920s, Muslims ceased to partitipate. N. G. Barrier, Roots of Communal Politics (Columbia, n.d.), pp. 236-7.
109. One of the most serious riots during Holi occurred in Benares in 1938. Reported in Aj (Benares), Special Issue, 17 March 1938.
110. Coccari, 'Protection and Identity', pp. 130-46.
111. Ibid., 143-4; Bharaitya Yadav Sangh: Rajatjayanti Smarak Granth (Bombay, 1954), Part I. p. 26.
112. Ibid., 143-4; Bharaitya Yadav Sangh: Rajatjayanti Smarak Granth (Bombay, 1954), Part I. p. 26.
113. Coccari, 'Protection and Identity', pp. 143-4.
114. Crooke, Tribes and castes, Volume I, p. 61; Onkar Prasad, Folk Music and Folk Dances of Banaras (Calcutta, 1987), pp. 94-5.
115. Crooke, Tribes and castes, Volume I, p. 61; Onkar Prasad, Folk Music and Folk Dances of Banaras (Calcutta, 1987), pp. 94-5.
116. P. van der Veer, Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India (Berkeley, 1994), P. 110.
117. Scott L. Marcus, 'The rise of a folk music genre: Biraha', in Freitag (ed.), Culture and Power in Banaras, pp. 93, 113; Kumar, Artisans of Banaras, pp. 152-3; Prasad, Folk Music, pp. 94-7.
118. Scott L. Marcus, 'The rise of a folk music genre: Biraha', in Freitag (ed.), Culture and Power in Banaras, pp. 93, 113; Kumar, Artisans of Banaras, pp. 152-3; Prasad, Folk Music, pp. 94-7.
119. Scott L. Marcus, 'The rise of a folk music genre: Biraha', in Freitag (ed.), Culture and Power in Banaras, pp. 93, 113; Kumar, Artisans of Banaras, pp. 152-3; Prasad, Folk Music, pp. 94-7.
120. Swami Narayananand Saraswati, Lavni ka Itihas (Kanpur, 1953), pp. 171-2, 235-7.
121. The central importance of akharas in twentieth-century urban popular culture has been noted by a number of authors, notably Freitag, Collective Action and Community, pp. 121-3; Kumar, Artisans of Banaras, pp. 111-24.
122. The central importance of akharas in twentieth-century urban popular culture has been noted by a number of authors, notably Freitag, Collective Action and Community, pp. 121-3; Kumar, Artisans of Banaras, pp. 111-24.
123. J. Alter, The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India (Berkeley, 1992), pp. 223-4.
124. The silver jubilee souvenir of the Yadav Sangh, for instance, pointed out the fact that one of the most important aspects of the yadav caste movement of the early twentieth century had been the formation of akharas. Bharatiya Yadav Sangh. Rajat Jayanti Smarak Granth, Part I, p. 26.
125. The existence of a very large number of wrestling akharas in Kanpur, many of which had shudra participation, is documented in N. P. Arora, Pahalwani aur Pahalwan (Kanpur, 1948), pp. 70-104. Here Arora mentions only the well-known akharas, many of which were patronized by merchants and traders, but had numerous shudras amongst their participants. He also mentions that in addition to the major akharas documented in the book, there were many more minor akharas. No figures are available for the number of akharas in this period for the various towns. However, interviews conducted in the towns confirm the widespread proliferation of akharas in the 1920s and '30s. Police and newspaper reports of the period, especially of communal riots, extensively mention the involvement of akharas.
126. Interviews with Chaudhuri Bandidin (head of Khatik panchayat in 1987 and a vegetable merchant) and Badlu Ram Sonekar (Khatik politician).
127. Interviews, in the Kanpur wholesale markets of Generalganj, Naughara, Collectorganj and Kahu Kothi, with shop employees and bazar labourers: Ram Kripal Yadav (President of the Kapra Bazar Palledar Union in 1987), Ramfer Khalifa and Datti Ram Yadav.
128. For the history of nautanki, see Ramnarayan Agarwal, Sangit (Delhi, 1976); Indra Sharma 'Varij', Swang Nautanki (Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1984).
129. For the history of nautanki, see Ramnarayan Agarwal, Sangit (Delhi, 1976); Indra Sharma 'Varij', Swang Nautanki (Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1984).
130. K. Hansen, 'The Birth of Hindi Drama in Banaras: 1868-1865' in Freitag, Culture and Power in Banaras, pp. 69.
131. 85 K. Hansen, 'Sultana the Dacoit and Harishchandra: Two Popular Dramas of the Nautanki Tradition of North India', Modern Asian Studies, 17, 2 (1983), 313-31.
132. Ibid., 323.
133. Ibid.
134. Hansen, 'Birth of Hindi Drama', p. 71.
135. Hansen, 'Sultana the Dacoit and Harishchandra', pp. 321-31.
136. Hansen, 'Birth of Hindi Drama', p. 74.
137. Ibid., pp. 70-1.
138. This is inferred from a number of plays by Sri Krishna Pahalwan, the texts of which were supplied to me by his son, Puran Chandra Mehrotra in Kanpur.
139. Hansen, 'Birth of Hindi Drama', pp. 71-4. Hansen, 'Sultana the Dacoit and Harishchandra', p. 314.
140. Hansen, 'Birth of Hindi Drama', pp. 71-4. Hansen, 'Sultana the Dacoit and Harishchandra', p. 314.
141. N. P. Arora's book on akharas and wrestling mentions that a number of akharas in Kanpur boasted of nautanki or swang performers. Arora, Pahalwani aur Pahalwan, pp. 70-104. It is interesting that the Kanpur school of nautanki is considered by some commentators to be 'vulgar' ('ashleel') as well as less respectable and more lower class in character than the other main school of nautanki in U.P. based at Hathras. This view is perhaps not surprising, since, in contrast to the latter, the Kanpur nautanki enjoyed greater participation and input from bazar akharas and Was more popular locally amongst the labouring classes. Sharma 'Varij', Swang Nautanki, p. 148.
142. N. P. Arora's book on akharas and wrestling mentions that a number of akharas in Kanpur boasted of nautanki or swang performers. Arora, Pahalwani aur Pahalwan, pp. 70-104. It is interesting that the Kanpur school of nautanki is considered by some commentators to be 'vulgar' ('ashleel') as well as less respectable and more lower class in character than the other main school of nautanki in U.P. based at Hathras. This view is perhaps not surprising, since, in contrast to the latter, the Kanpur nautanki enjoyed greater participation and input from bazar akharas and Was more popular locally amongst the labouring classes. Sharma 'Varij', Swang Nautanki, p. 148.
143. Alter, The Wrestler's Body, pp. 72-5.
144. Ibid., p. 73.
145. Confidential note on 'Communal friction in the United Provinces, 1924', by Assistant to the Deputy Inspector General of Police, Criminal Investigation Department, U.P. File no. 140/1925. Home Political Department. Government of India. National Archives of India, Delhi.
146. Arora, Pahalwani aur Pahalwan, pp. 10-12.
147. Joseph Alter argues that wrestling was very popular during the period of the nationalist movement, because nationalism was integrally related to the cultivation of physical culture and a 'wrestling way of life'. Alter, The Wrestler's Body, pp. 17-18. The enthusiasm of the Congress nationalists for wrestling is also evident from Arora, Pahalwani aur Pahalwan. Arora, a well-known Congress leader of Kanpur, was himself an enthusiast and practitioner, and his book on wrestling and wrestlers is a reflection of this keen interest.
148. Joseph Alter argues that wrestling was very popular during the period of the nationalist movement, because nationalism was integrally related to the cultivation of physical culture and a 'wrestling way of life'. Alter, The Wrestler's Body, pp. 17-18. The enthusiasm of the Congress nationalists for wrestling is also evident from Arora, Pahalwani aur Pahalwan. Arora, a well-known Congress leader of Kanpur, was himself an enthusiast and practitioner, and his book on wrestling and wrestlers is a reflection of this keen interest.
149. Evidence of Khaliluddin Ahmad Saheb, Honorary Assistant Collector, Kanpur, given to the Kanpur riots enquiry commission of 1931. Reported in The Pioneer (Lucknow), 25 April 1931. Also mentioned in Freitag, Collective Action and Community, pp. 225, 234.
150. Harimohandas Tandon, Prayagraj: Lala Manohardas ka Parivar (Allahabad, 1993), pp. 176, 184. Tandon mentions that the rais and merchant patrons would bring their labourers from their rural zamindaris to carry images and tableaux during the Ramlila.
151. Criminal Investigation Department, U.P.: Weekly Police Abstracts of Intelligence: No. 41, 27 October 1923; No. 41, 18 October 1924.
152. Kumar, Artisans of Banaras, pp. 189-93. Kumar mentions here that mimes and similar features appeared in Banaras before the 1920s. It is interesting, however, that these features were introduced by the lower castes, and the particular Ramlila procession (Nakkataiya), in which these were prominent, was largely one of lower castes and classes.
153. Tandon, Prayagraj, passim. There were four Ramlila processions and celebrations in Allahabad, of which the Tandon family was associated with the Paiaba Ramlila.
154. Criminal Investigation Department, U.P.: Weekly Police Abstracts of Intelligence: No. 41, 18 October 1924.
155. Ibid., No. 41, 27 October 1923.
156. Confidential note on 'Communal friction in the United Provinces, 1924', by Assistant to the Deputy Inspector General of Police, Criminal Investigation Department, U.P. File no. 140/1925. Home Political Department. Government of India National Archives of India, Delhi.
157. Criminal Investigation Department, U.P.: Weekly Police Abstracts of Intelligence: No. 39, 7 October 1922; Tandon, Prayagraj, p. 82; Kumar, Artisans of Banaras, p. 192; File on 'Innovations in Ramlila Processions at Allahabad'. File no. 586/1921. Box No. 40. General Administration Department. Government of U.P. U.P. State Archives, Lucknow.
158. Criminal Investigation Department, U.P.: Weekly Police Abstracts of Intelligence: No. 39, 7 October 1922; Tandon, Prayagraj, p. 82; Kumar, Artisans of Banaras, p. 192; File on 'Innovations in Ramlila Processions at Allahabad'. File no. 586/1921. Box No. 40. General Administration Department. Government of U.P. U.P. State Archives, Lucknow.
159. Kumar, Artisans of Banaras, pp. 190-3; Aj (Benares), 6 October 1931, 14 October 1938; N. Kumar, 'Class and gender in the Ramlila', Indian Economic and Social History Review, 29, 1 (1992), 51-4.
160. Kumar, Artisans of Banaras, pp. 190-3; Aj (Benares), 6 October 1931, 14 October 1938; N. Kumar, 'Class and gender in the Ramlila', Indian Economic and Social History Review, 29, 1 (1992), 51-4.
161. Kumar, Artisans of Banaras, pp. 190-3; Aj (Benares), 6 October 1931, 14 October 1938; N. Kumar, 'Class and gender in the Ramlila', Indian Economic and Social History Review, 29, 1 (1992), 51-4.
162. Aj (Benares), 20 October 1938.
163. Yadavesh (Benares), 2, 1, Holi Special Issue, vikrami samvat 1993 c. A.D. 1936, P. 22.
164. Kumar, Artisans of Banaras, pp. 190-3.
165. Ibid., pp. 189-93.
166. Alter, The Wrestler's Body, pp. 198-213.
167. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore, p. 51.
168. Tandon, Prayagraj, p. 77.
169. In her analysis of the Benares Nakkataiya Ramlila, Nita Kumar argues that the festival has to be seen as 'the field for control and domination, expressing social relations'. Kumar, 'Class and gender in the Ramlila', p. 39.
170. Gyan Pandey, commenting on the cow-protection riots of the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, has similarly argued that Hindu religious resurgence was not a cohesive phenomenon, but 'encompassed the exertions of many disparate castes, classes and local communities, struggling for status, searching for roots, for leadership and for adequate forms of self-expression'. He further states: '. . . the powerful movements that arose to promote "Hindu" and "Muslim" unity in northern India, the new solidarities that emerged did not everywhere and indubitably add up to "Hindu" versus "Muslim"'. G. Pandey, The Construction of Communalism, pp. 205, 200.