Enlightenment brought down to earth

History of Science

Volumn 41, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 257-268

  Schaffer, Simon ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 2442653771     PISSN: 00732753     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/007327530304100303     Document Type: Review

References (69)

1. Oliver Goldsmith, A history of the Earth and animated nature (1774; Glasgow, 1857), 11; Roy Porter, "The urban and the rustic in Enlightenment London", in Mikuláš Teich, Roy Porter and Bo Gustafsson (eds), Nature and society in historical context (Cambridge, 1997), 176-94, p. 176.
2. Oliver Goldsmith, A history of the Earth and animated nature (1774; Glasgow, 1857), 11; Roy Porter, "The urban and the rustic in Enlightenment London", in Mikuláš Teich, Roy Porter and Bo Gustafsson (eds), Nature and society in historical context (Cambridge, 1997), 176-94, p. 176.
3. Roy Porter, Enlightenment: Britain and the creation of the modern world (London, 2001), 295, 319; compare the slightly different versions in Porter, "In England's green and pleasant land: The English Enlightenment and the environment", in Kate Flint and Howard Morphy (eds), Culture, landscape and the environment (Oxford, 2000), 15-43, and "The environment and the Enlightenment: The English experience", in Lorraine Daston and Gianna Pomata (eds), The faces of nature in Enlightenment Europe (Berlin, 2003), 17-38, citation from p. 38.
4. Roy Porter, Enlightenment: Britain and the creation of the modern world (London, 2001), 295, 319; compare the slightly different versions in Porter, "In England's green and pleasant land: The English Enlightenment and the environment", in Kate Flint and Howard Morphy (eds), Culture, landscape and the environment (Oxford, 2000), 15-43, and "The environment and the Enlightenment: The English experience", in Lorraine Daston and Gianna Pomata (eds), The faces of nature in Enlightenment Europe (Berlin, 2003), 17-38, citation from p. 38.
5. Roy Porter, Enlightenment: Britain and the creation of the modern world (London, 2001), 295, 319; compare the slightly different versions in Porter, "In England's green and pleasant land: The English Enlightenment and the environment", in Kate Flint and Howard Morphy (eds), Culture, landscape and the environment (Oxford, 2000), 15-43, and "The environment and the Enlightenment: The English experience", in Lorraine Daston and Gianna Pomata (eds), The faces of nature in Enlightenment Europe (Berlin, 2003), 17-38, citation from p. 38.
6. Porter, Enlightenment (ref. 2), 305, 382, citing M. C. Jacob, The cultural meaning of the Scientific Revolution (New York, 1988), 116ff.
7. Porter, Enlightenment (ref. 2), 305, 382, citing M. C. Jacob, The cultural meaning of the Scientific Revolution (New York, 1988), 116ff.
8. Porter, Enlightenment (ref. 2), 319.
9. Porter, "The urban and the rustic" (ref. 1), 176, 179, 191; Roy Porter, London: A social history (London, 1994), 113-16.
10. Porter, "The urban and the rustic" (ref. 1), 176, 179, 191; Roy Porter, London: A social history (London, 1994), 113-16.
11. Basil Willey, The eighteenth-century background (London, 1940); Porter, "Environment and Enlightenment" (ref. 2), 38; J. H. Plumb, "The Walpoles: Father and son", in J. H. Plumb (ed.), Studies in social history: A tribute to G. M. Trevelyan (London, 1955), 179-207; Raymond Williams, The country and the city (London, 1973); Patrick Wright, On living in an old country: The national past in contemporary Britain (London, 1985); and Raphael Samuel, Theatres of memory: Past and present in contemporary culture (London, 1994).
12. Basil Willey, The eighteenth-century background (London, 1940); Porter, "Environment and Enlightenment" (ref. 2), 38; J. H. Plumb, "The Walpoles: Father and son", in J. H. Plumb (ed.), Studies in social history: A tribute to G. M. Trevelyan (London, 1955), 179-207; Raymond Williams, The country and the city (London, 1973); Patrick Wright, On living in an old country: The national past in contemporary Britain (London, 1985); and Raphael Samuel, Theatres of memory: Past and present in contemporary culture (London, 1994).
13. Basil Willey, The eighteenth-century background (London, 1940); Porter, "Environment and Enlightenment" (ref. 2), 38; J. H. Plumb, "The Walpoles: Father and son", in J. H. Plumb (ed.), Studies in social history: A tribute to G. M. Trevelyan (London, 1955), 179-207; Raymond Williams, The country and the city (London, 1973); Patrick Wright, On living in an old country: The national past in contemporary Britain (London, 1985); and Raphael Samuel, Theatres of memory: Past and present in contemporary culture (London, 1994).
14. Basil Willey, The eighteenth-century background (London, 1940); Porter, "Environment and Enlightenment" (ref. 2), 38; J. H. Plumb, "The Walpoles: Father and son", in J. H. Plumb (ed.), Studies in social history: A tribute to G. M. Trevelyan (London, 1955), 179-207; Raymond Williams, The country and the city (London, 1973); Patrick Wright, On living in an old country: The national past in contemporary Britain (London, 1985); and Raphael Samuel, Theatres of memory: Past and present in contemporary culture (London, 1994).
15. Basil Willey, The eighteenth-century background (London, 1940); Porter, "Environment and Enlightenment" (ref. 2), 38; J. H. Plumb, "The Walpoles: Father and son", in J. H. Plumb (ed.), Studies in social history: A tribute to G. M. Trevelyan (London, 1955), 179-207; Raymond Williams, The country and the city (London, 1973); Patrick Wright, On living in an old country: The national past in contemporary Britain (London, 1985); and Raphael Samuel, Theatres of memory: Past and present in contemporary culture (London, 1994).
16. Basil Willey, The eighteenth-century background (London, 1940); Porter, "Environment and Enlightenment" (ref. 2), 38; J. H. Plumb, "The Walpoles: Father and son", in J. H. Plumb (ed.), Studies in social history: A tribute to G. M. Trevelyan (London, 1955), 179-207; Raymond Williams, The country and the city (London, 1973); Patrick Wright, On living in an old country: The national past in contemporary Britain (London, 1985); and Raphael Samuel, Theatres of memory: Past and present in contemporary culture (London, 1994).
17. Roy Porter, The making of geology: Earth science in Britain 1660-1815 (Cambridge, 1977), 104, and idem, "The terraqueous globe", in G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter (eds), The ferment of knowledge (Cambridge, 1980), 285-324, p. 286. For enlightened agronomy see André Bourde, Agronomie et agronomes en France au 18e siècle (Paris, 1967); Sarah Wilmot, The business of improvement: Agriculture and scientific culture in Britain 1700-1870 (Reading, 1990); Richard Grove, Green imperialism: Colonial expansion, tropical island Edens and the origins of environmentalism 1600-1860 (Cambridge, 1995); Andrée Corvol (ed.), La Nature en revolution 1750-1800 (Paris, 1993); and Richard Drayton, Nature's government: Science, imperial Britain and the "improvement" of the world (New Haven, 2000).
18. Roy Porter, The making of geology: Earth science in Britain 1660-1815 (Cambridge, 1977), 104, and idem, "The terraqueous globe", in G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter (eds), The ferment of knowledge (Cambridge, 1980), 285-324, p. 286. For enlightened agronomy see André Bourde, Agronomie et agronomes en France au 18e siècle (Paris, 1967); Sarah Wilmot, The business of improvement: Agriculture and scientific culture in Britain 1700-1870 (Reading, 1990); Richard Grove, Green imperialism: Colonial expansion, tropical island Edens and the origins of environmentalism 1600-1860 (Cambridge, 1995); Andrée Corvol (ed.), La Nature en revolution 1750-1800 (Paris, 1993); and Richard Drayton, Nature's government: Science, imperial Britain and the "improvement" of the world (New Haven, 2000).
19. Roy Porter, The making of geology: Earth science in Britain 1660-1815 (Cambridge, 1977), 104, and idem, "The terraqueous globe", in G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter (eds), The ferment of knowledge (Cambridge, 1980), 285-324, p. 286. For enlightened agronomy see André Bourde, Agronomie et agronomes en France au 18e siècle (Paris, 1967); Sarah Wilmot, The business of improvement: Agriculture and scientific culture in Britain 1700-1870 (Reading, 1990); Richard Grove, Green imperialism: Colonial expansion, tropical island Edens and the origins of environmentalism 1600-1860 (Cambridge, 1995); Andrée Corvol (ed.), La Nature en revolution 1750-1800 (Paris, 1993); and Richard Drayton, Nature's government: Science, imperial Britain and the "improvement" of the world (New Haven, 2000).
20. Roy Porter, The making of geology: Earth science in Britain 1660-1815 (Cambridge, 1977), 104, and idem, "The terraqueous globe", in G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter (eds), The ferment of knowledge (Cambridge, 1980), 285-324, p. 286. For enlightened agronomy see André Bourde, Agronomie et agronomes en France au 18e siècle (Paris, 1967); Sarah Wilmot, The business of improvement: Agriculture and scientific culture in Britain 1700-1870 (Reading, 1990); Richard Grove, Green imperialism: Colonial expansion, tropical island Edens and the origins of environmentalism 1600-1860 (Cambridge, 1995); Andrée Corvol (ed.), La Nature en revolution 1750-1800 (Paris, 1993); and Richard Drayton, Nature's government: Science, imperial Britain and the "improvement" of the world (New Haven, 2000).
21. Roy Porter, The making of geology: Earth science in Britain 1660-1815 (Cambridge, 1977), 104, and idem, "The terraqueous globe", in G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter (eds), The ferment of knowledge (Cambridge, 1980), 285-324, p. 286. For enlightened agronomy see André Bourde, Agronomie et agronomes en France au 18e siècle (Paris, 1967); Sarah Wilmot, The business of improvement: Agriculture and scientific culture in Britain 1700-1870 (Reading, 1990); Richard Grove, Green imperialism: Colonial expansion, tropical island Edens and the origins of environmentalism 1600-1860 (Cambridge, 1995); Andrée Corvol (ed.), La Nature en revolution 1750-1800 (Paris, 1993); and Richard Drayton, Nature's government: Science, imperial Britain and the "improvement" of the world (New Haven, 2000).
22. Roy Porter, The making of geology: Earth science in Britain 1660-1815 (Cambridge, 1977), 104, and idem, "The terraqueous globe", in G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter (eds), The ferment of knowledge (Cambridge, 1980), 285-324, p. 286. For enlightened agronomy see André Bourde, Agronomie et agronomes en France au 18e siècle (Paris, 1967); Sarah Wilmot, The business of improvement: Agriculture and scientific culture in Britain 1700-1870 (Reading, 1990); Richard Grove, Green imperialism: Colonial expansion, tropical island Edens and the origins of environmentalism 1600-1860 (Cambridge, 1995); Andrée Corvol (ed.), La Nature en revolution 1750-1800 (Paris, 1993); and Richard Drayton, Nature's government: Science, imperial Britain and the "improvement" of the world (New Haven, 2000).
23. Roy Porter, The making of geology: Earth science in Britain 1660-1815 (Cambridge, 1977), 104, and idem, "The terraqueous globe", in G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter (eds), The ferment of knowledge (Cambridge, 1980), 285-324, p. 286. For enlightened agronomy see André Bourde, Agronomie et agronomes en France au 18e siècle (Paris, 1967); Sarah Wilmot, The business of improvement: Agriculture and scientific culture in Britain 1700-1870 (Reading, 1990); Richard Grove, Green imperialism: Colonial expansion, tropical island Edens and the origins of environmentalism 1600-1860 (Cambridge, 1995); Andrée Corvol (ed.), La Nature en revolution 1750-1800 (Paris, 1993); and Richard Drayton, Nature's government: Science, imperial Britain and the "improvement" of the world (New Haven, 2000).
24. Porter, Making of geology (ref. 7), 238.
25. Porter, "Terraqueous globe" (ref. 7), 313.
26. Arthur Young, "Conduct of experiments in agriculture", Annals of agriculture, v (1786), 17-46.
27. Roy Porter, English society in the eighteenth century (Harmondsworth, 1982), 56.
28. Gilles Denis, "La representation de la maladie des plantes", in Corvol (ed.), Nature en revolution (ref. 7), 94-106, p. 94.
29. Young, "Conduct of experiments" (ref. 10), 20-21.
30. Porter, English society (ref. 11), 221.
31. Jethro Tull, New horse houghing husbandry (London, 1731), pp. xxvi, 115, 124.
32. E. P. Thompson, Customs in common (London, 1991), 140, and Maureen McNeil, Under the banner of science: Erasmus Darwin and his age (Manchester, 1987), 186.
33. E. P. Thompson, Customs in common (London, 1991), 140, and Maureen McNeil, Under the banner of science: Erasmus Darwin and his age (Manchester, 1987), 186.
34. William Lehmann, Henry Home, Lord Kames and the Scottish Enlightenment (The Hague, 1971), 111; Lord Kames, The gentleman farmer (Edinburgh, 1776), 284-5; Adam Smith, An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations (1776; 4 vols, Edinburgh, 1814), ii, 55; and Thompson, Customs in common (ref. 16), 281, n. 1.
35. William Lehmann, Henry Home, Lord Kames and the Scottish Enlightenment (The Hague, 1971), 111; Lord Kames, The gentleman farmer (Edinburgh, 1776), 284-5; Adam Smith, An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations (1776; 4 vols, Edinburgh, 1814), ii, 55; and Thompson, Customs in common (ref. 16), 281, n. 1.
36. William Lehmann, Henry Home, Lord Kames and the Scottish Enlightenment (The Hague, 1971), 111; Lord Kames, The gentleman farmer (Edinburgh, 1776), 284-5; Adam Smith, An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations (1776; 4 vols, Edinburgh, 1814), ii, 55; and Thompson, Customs in common (ref. 16), 281, n. 1.
37. William Lehmann, Henry Home, Lord Kames and the Scottish Enlightenment (The Hague, 1971), 111; Lord Kames, The gentleman farmer (Edinburgh, 1776), 284-5; Adam Smith, An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations (1776; 4 vols, Edinburgh, 1814), ii, 55; and Thompson, Customs in common (ref. 16), 281, n. 1.
38. Young, "Conduct of experiments" (ref. 10), 31.
39. William Marshall, Minutes of agriculture (London, 1783), "Digest", 7, 35, 39-40. For Young as aerial chemist, see John G. Gazley, The life of Arthur Young (Philadelphia, 1973), 151-3.
40. William Marshall, Minutes of agriculture (London, 1783), "Digest", 7, 35, 39-40. For Young as aerial chemist, see John G. Gazley, The life of Arthur Young (Philadelphia, 1973), 151-3.
41. William Marshall, Minutes of agriculture (London, 1783), "Digest", 7, 35, 39-40. For Young as aerial chemist, see John G. Gazley, The life of Arthur Young (Philadelphia, 1973), 151-3.
42. Marshall, Minutes of agriculture (ref. 19), sig. b2v; Sven Widmalm, "Accuracy, rhetoric and technology: The Paris-Greenwich triangulation 1784-88", in Tore Frangsmyr, J. L. Heilbron and Robin E. Rider (eds), The quantifying spirit in the eighteenth century (Berkeley, 1990), 179-206; and Matthew Edney, "Mathematical cosmography and the social ideology of British cartography 1780-1820", Imago mundi, xlvi (1994), 101-16.
43. Marshall, Minutes of agriculture (ref. 19), sig. b2v; Sven Widmalm, "Accuracy, rhetoric and technology: The Paris-Greenwich triangulation 1784-88", in Tore Frangsmyr, J. L. Heilbron and Robin E. Rider (eds), The quantifying spirit in the eighteenth century (Berkeley, 1990), 179-206; and Matthew Edney, "Mathematical cosmography and the social ideology of British cartography 1780-1820", Imago mundi, xlvi (1994), 101-16.
44. Marshall, Minutes of agriculture (ref. 19), sig. b2v; Sven Widmalm, "Accuracy, rhetoric and technology: The Paris-Greenwich triangulation 1784-88", in Tore Frangsmyr, J. L. Heilbron and Robin E. Rider (eds), The quantifying spirit in the eighteenth century (Berkeley, 1990), 179-206; and Matthew Edney, "Mathematical cosmography and the social ideology of British cartography 1780-1820", Imago mundi, xlvi (1994), 101-16.
45. Eric Hobsbawm, "Capitalisme et agriculture: Les réformateurs écossais au 18e siècle", Annales ESC, xxxiii (1978), 580-601, and Eric Cregeen, "The changing role of the House of Argyll in the Scottish Highlands", in N. T. Phillipson and Rosalind Mitchison (eds), Scotland in the age of improvement (Edinburgh, 1970), 5-23.
46. Eric Hobsbawm, "Capitalisme et agriculture: Les réformateurs écossais au 18e siècle", Annales ESC, xxxiii (1978), 580-601, and Eric Cregeen, "The changing role of the House of Argyll in the Scottish Highlands", in N. T. Phillipson and Rosalind Mitchison (eds), Scotland in the age of improvement (Edinburgh, 1970), 5-23.
47. Porter, Making of geology (ref. 7), 110-11, 219; Porter, "Terraqueous globe" (ref. 7), 298.
48. Porter, Making of geology (ref. 7), 110-11, 219; Porter, "Terraqueous globe" (ref. 7), 298.
49. Roy Porter, "The industrial revolution and the rise of the science of geology", in Mikuláš Teich and Robert Young (eds), Changing perspectives in the history of science: Essays in honour of Joseph Needham (London, 1972), 320-43, pp. 326, 342.
50. Porter, "Rise of the science of geology" (ref. 23), 323.
51. John Phillips, Memoirs of William Smith (London, 1844), 9-10, 16, and Kenneth Hudson, Patriotism with profit: British agricultural societies in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (London, 1972), 11-14.
52. John Phillips, Memoirs of William Smith (London, 1844), 9-10, 16, and Kenneth Hudson, Patriotism with profit: British agricultural societies in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (London, 1972), 11-14.
53. Porter, Making of geology (ref. 7), 99, 132, 137, and Porter, "Rise of the science of geology" (ref. 23), 326.
54. Porter, Making of geology (ref. 7), 99, 132, 137, and Porter, "Rise of the science of geology" (ref. 23), 326.
55. Phillips, William Smith (ref. 25), 32-46, 77-79, and Porter, Making of geology (ref. 7), 179-80.
56. Phillips, William Smith (ref. 25), 32-46, 77-79, and Porter, Making of geology (ref. 7), 179-80.
57. Porter, Making of geology (ref. 7), 105, and E. P. Thompson, The making of the English working class (Harmondsworth, 1968), 254. See T. M. Parssinnen, "Thomas Spence and the origins of English land nationalisation", Journal of history of ideas, xxxiv (1973), 135-41, and Malcolm Chase, The people's farm: English radical agrarianism 1775-1840 (Oxford, 1988).
58. Porter, Making of geology (ref. 7), 105, and E. P. Thompson, The making of the English working class (Harmondsworth, 1968), 254. See T. M. Parssinnen, "Thomas Spence and the origins of English land nationalisation", Journal of history of ideas, xxxiv (1973), 135-41, and Malcolm Chase, The people's farm: English radical agrarianism 1775-1840 (Oxford, 1988).
59. Porter, Making of geology (ref. 7), 105, and E. P. Thompson, The making of the English working class (Harmondsworth, 1968), 254. See T. M. Parssinnen, "Thomas Spence and the origins of English land nationalisation", Journal of history of ideas, xxxiv (1973), 135-41, and Malcolm Chase, The people's farm: English radical agrarianism 1775-1840 (Oxford, 1988).
60. Porter, Making of geology (ref. 7), 105, and E. P. Thompson, The making of the English working class (Harmondsworth, 1968), 254. See T. M. Parssinnen, "Thomas Spence and the origins of English land nationalisation", Journal of history of ideas, xxxiv (1973), 135-41, and Malcolm Chase, The people's farm: English radical agrarianism 1775-1840 (Oxford, 1988).
61. Thompson, Making of the English working class (ref. 28), 176-9, 254; Iain McCalman, Radical underworld: Prophets, revolutionaries and pornographers in London 1795-1840 (Cambridge, 1988), 99, and Porter, Enlightenment (ref. 2), 460.
62. Thompson, Making of the English working class (ref. 28), 176-9, 254; Iain McCalman, Radical underworld: Prophets, revolutionaries and pornographers in London 1795-1840 (Cambridge, 1988), 99, and Porter, Enlightenment (ref. 2), 460.
63. Thompson, Making of the English working class (ref. 28), 176-9, 254; Iain McCalman, Radical underworld: Prophets, revolutionaries and pornographers in London 1795-1840 (Cambridge, 1988), 99, and Porter, Enlightenment (ref. 2), 460.
64. Chase, The people's farm (ref. 28), 127-31.
65. Raymond Williams, Keywords (London, 1983), 219; Porter, "Terraqueous globe" (ref. 7), 324, and Porter, Enlightenment (ref. 2), 319. For agronomy's aftermath, see Wilmot, Business of improvement (ref. 7), and W. Krohn and W. Schaefer, "The origins and structure of agricultural chemistry", in G. Lemaine et al. (eds), Perspectives on the emergence of scientific disciplines (Paris, 1976), 27-52.
66. Raymond Williams, Keywords (London, 1983), 219; Porter, "Terraqueous globe" (ref. 7), 324, and Porter, Enlightenment (ref. 2), 319. For agronomy's aftermath, see Wilmot, Business of improvement (ref. 7), and W. Krohn and W. Schaefer, "The origins and structure of agricultural chemistry", in G. Lemaine et al. (eds), Perspectives on the emergence of scientific disciplines (Paris, 1976), 27-52.
67. Raymond Williams, Keywords (London, 1983), 219; Porter, "Terraqueous globe" (ref. 7), 324, and Porter, Enlightenment (ref. 2), 319. For agronomy's aftermath, see Wilmot, Business of improvement (ref. 7), and W. Krohn and W. Schaefer, "The origins and structure of agricultural chemistry", in G. Lemaine et al. (eds), Perspectives on the emergence of scientific disciplines (Paris, 1976), 27-52.
68. Raymond Williams, Keywords (London, 1983), 219; Porter, "Terraqueous globe" (ref. 7), 324, and Porter, Enlightenment (ref. 2), 319. For agronomy's aftermath, see Wilmot, Business of improvement (ref. 7), and W. Krohn and W. Schaefer, "The origins and structure of agricultural chemistry", in G. Lemaine et al. (eds), Perspectives on the emergence of scientific disciplines (Paris, 1976), 27-52.
69. Raymond Williams, Keywords (London, 1983), 219; Porter, "Terraqueous globe" (ref. 7), 324, and Porter, Enlightenment (ref. 2), 319. For agronomy's aftermath, see Wilmot, Business of improvement (ref. 7), and W. Krohn and W. Schaefer, "The origins and structure of agricultural chemistry", in G. Lemaine et al. (eds), Perspectives on the emergence of scientific disciplines (Paris, 1976), 27-52.