NTP-CERHR Expert Panel report on the reproductive and developmental toxicity of propylene glycol

Reproductive Toxicology

Volumn 18, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 533-579

[No Author Info available]

Author keywords

ACC; adenosine triphosphate; ADH; Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry; alcohol dehydrogenase; aldehyde dehydrogenase; ALDH; American Chemistry Council; analysis of variance; ANOVA; area under the concentration versus time curve; ATP; ATSDR; AUC; Ave

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASE; CHLORDIAZEPOXIDE; COSMETIC; COTRIMOXAZOLE; DIAZEPAM; DIGOXIN; DRUG VEHICLE; ESMOLOL; ETOMIDATE; FOOD ADDITIVE; GLYCERYL TRINITRATE; HYDRALAZINE; LACTIC ACID; LORAZEPAM; MULTIVITAMIN; NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE; PENTOBARBITAL; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PROPYLENE GLYCOL;

ABSORPTION; ACIDOSIS; ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; AIRCRAFT; AVIATION; BLOOD PLACENTA BARRIER; BODY DISTRIBUTION; CARCINOGENICITY; CARDIOPULMONARY ARREST; CHEMICAL ANALYSIS; CLEARANCE; CONCENTRATION RESPONSE; CONGENITAL MALFORMATION; DATA ANALYSIS; DEPRESSION; DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY; DISEASE EXACERBATION; ELIMINATION REACTION; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENZYME ACTIVITY; EPILEPTIC STATE; EVALUATION; FOOD ANALYSIS; FOOD PROCESSING; HALF LIFE TIME; HEALTH HAZARD; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEMOLYSIS; HUMAN; HYPEROSMOLALITY; HYPOTENSION; INFUSION; INHALATION; LACTIC ACIDOSIS; MATERIAL COATING; METABOLISM; NONHUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; OCCUPATIONAL HAZARD; ORGANIZATION; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE; RABBIT; REPRODUCTIVE TOXICITY; RESPIRATION DEPRESSION; RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SEIZURE; SKIN ABSORPTION; SPECIES DIFFERENCE; STEREOSPECIFICITY; TERATOGENESIS; TOBACCO; TOXICOKINETICS; UNCONSCIOUSNESS; UREMIA;

ABNORMALITIES, DRUG-INDUCED; ANIMALS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FEMALE; FETAL DISEASES; HUMANS; MICE; PREGNANCY; PROPYLENE GLYCOLS; RATS; REPRODUCTION; RISK ASSESSMENT; TERATOGENS;

NICOTIANA TABACUM; ORYCTOLAGUS CUNICULUS;

EID: 2442609942     PISSN: 08906238     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2004.01.004     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Chemfinder. Propylene glycol. Available at http://chemfinder. cambridgesoft.com; 2002.
2. HSDB. Propylene glycol. National Library of Medicine; 2002.
3. ACC. Comments of the Propylene Oxide/Propylene Glycols Panel of the American Chemistry Council on NTP CERHR Expert Panel Report on the reproductive and developmental toxicity of propylene glycol. Arlington, VA: American Chemistry Council; 2003.
4. ATSDR. Toxicological profile for ethylene glycol and propylene glycol. Atlanta, GA: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry; 1997.
5. SRI. CEH product review: propylene glycols. Chemical economics handbook; 2000.
6. Castle L., Cloke H.R., Crews C., Gilbert J. The migration of propylene glycol, mono-, di-, and triethylene glycols from regenerated cellulose film into food. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 187:1988;463-467
7. FDA. Generally recognized as safe; 1982. 21 CFR 184.1666.
8. FDA. The Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act of 1997; 1997.
9. FDA. GRAS status of propylene glycol exclusion of use in cat food. Fed Reg 1996;61.
10. USEPA. National pollutant discharge elimination system permit application regulations for storm discharges. 40 CFR Parts 122, 123, and 124. Fed Reg 1990;55:47990.
11. Kolpin D., Furlong E., Meyer M., Thurman E., Zaugg S., Barber L., et al. Pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants in U.S. streams, 1999-2000: a national reconnaissance. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36:2002;1202-1211
12. Louekari K, Scott AO, Salminen S. Estimation of food additive intake. In: DPM, Branen AL, editors. Food additives. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1990.
13. JECFA. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants: fifty-seventh report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on food additives; 2002.
14. Cosmetic-ingredient-review. Final report on the safety assessment of propylene glycol and polypropylene glycols. J Am Coll Toxicol 1994;13:437-91.
15. Hodgson A.T., Wooley J.D., Daisey J.M. Emissions of volatile organic compounds from new carpets measured in a large-scale environmental chamber. Air Waste. 43:1993;316-324
16. FDA. Propylene glycol and propylene glycol monostearate. Food and Drug Administration. Fed Reg 1977;42:30865-6.
17. WHO. Toxicological evaluation of some food additives including anticaking agents, antimicrobials, antioxidants, emulsifiers and thickening agents. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1974.
18. AIHA-WEEL. Workplace environmental exposure level (WEEL) guide for propylene glycol. Fairfax, VA: American Industrial Hygiene Association; 1985.
19. Norback D., Wieslander G., Edling C. Occupational exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and other air pollutants from the indoor application of water-based paints. Ann Occup Hyg. 39:1995;783-794
20. Laitinen J., Liesivuori J., Savolainen H. Exposure to glycols and their renal effects in motor servicing workers. Occup Med. 45:1995;259-262
21. Corsi S.R., Hall D.W., Geis S.W. Aircraft and runway deicers at General Mitchell International Airport, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA. 2. Toxicity of aircraft and runway deicers. Environ Toxicol. Chem. 20:2001;1483-1490
22. Letzel S., Gundel J., Schaller K.H., Angerer J. Biomonitoring von Glykolbelasteten Personen - Kapillargaschromatographische Bestimmung von Ethylenglykol und 1, 2-Propylenglykol im Harn. Arbeitsmed Sozialmed Umweltmed. 35:2000;160-162
23. Wieslander G., Norback D., Lindgren T. Experimental exposure to propylene glycol mist in aviation emergency training: acute ocular and respiratory effects. Occup. Environ. Med. 58:2001;649-655
24. NIOSH. HETA 95-0069. Denver, CO: National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health, Denver Federal Center; 1997
25. Klecka G.M., Carpenter C.L., Landenberger B.D. Biodegradation of aircraft deicing fluids in soil at low temperatures. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saftey. 25:1993;280-295
26. Sills RD, Blakeslee PA. The environmental impact of deicers in airport stormwater runoff. In: Chemical deicers and the environment. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers, Inc.; 1992.
27. OECD. SIDS initial assessment report for 11th SIAM. Washington, DC: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development; 2001.
28. LaKind J.S., McKenna E.A., Hubner R.P., Tardiff R.G. A review of the comparative mammalian toxicity of ethylene glycol and propylene glycol. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 29:1999;331-365
29. Yu D.K., Elmquist W.F., Sawchuk R.J. Pharmacokinetics of propylene glycol in humans during multiple dosing regimens. J. Pharm. Sci. 74:1985;876-879
30. Speth P.A., Vree T.B., Neilen N.F., de Mulder P.H., Newell D.R., Gore M., et al. Propylene glycol pharmacokinetics and effects after intravenous infusion in humans. Ther. Drug Monit. 9:1987;255-258
31. Kolloffel W.J., Weekers L.E., Goldhoorn P.B. Pharmacokinetics of propylene glycol after rectal administration. Pharm. World Sci. 18:1996;109-113
32. Pikkarainen P.H., Raiha N.C.R. Development of alcohol dehydrogenase activity in the human liver. Pediatr. Res. 1:1967;165-168
33. MacKee G.M., Sulzeberger M.B., Herrmann F., Baer R.L. Histologic studies on percutaneous penetration with special reference to the effect of vehicles. J. Ingest Dermatol. 6:1945;43-61
34. Kulick M.I., Wong R., Okarma T.B., Falces E., Berkowitz R.L. Prospective study of side effects associated with the use of silver sulfadiazine in severely burned patients. Ann. Plast. Surg. 14:1985;407-419
35. Fligner C.L., Jack R., Twiggs G.A., Raisys V.A. Hyperosmolality induced by propylene glycol. A complication of silver sulfadiazine therapy. JAMA. 253:1985;1606-1609
36. Glasgow A.M., Boeckx R.L., Miller M.K., MacDonald M.G., August G.P., Goodman S.I. Hyperosmolality in small infants due to propylene glycol. Pediatrics. 72:1983;353-355
37. Takeuchi Y., Yasukawa H., Yamaoka Y., Taguchi K., Fukushima S., Shimonaka Y., et al. Behavior of propylene glycol (PG) in dermis after treatment of rat intact skin surface with fatty acids, fatty amines or azone dissolved in PG. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 18:1995;304-309
38. Bau S.K., Aspin N., Wood D.E., Levison H. The measurement of fluid deposition in humans following mist tent therapy. Pediatrics. 48:1971;605-612
39. Christopher M.M., Eckfeldt J.H., Eaton J.W. Propylene glycol ingestion causes D-lactic acidosis. Lab Invest. 62:1990;114-118
40. Morshed K.M., L'Helgoualch A., Nagpaul J.P., Amma M.K., Desjeux J.F. The role of propylene glycol metabolism in lactatemia in the rabbit. Biochem. Med. Metab. Biol. 46:1991;145-151
41. Morshed K.M., Nagpaul J.P., Majumdar S., Amma M.K. Kinetics of propylene glycol elimination and metabolism in rat. Biochem. Med. Metab. Biol. 39:1988;90-97
42. Lehman A.J., Newman H.W. Propylene glycol: rate of metabolism absorption, and excretion, with a method for estimation in body fluids. J. Pharm. Exp. Ther. 60:1937;312-321
43. Morshed K.M., Desjeux J.F., Nagpaul J.P., Majumdar S., Amma M.K. The effect of propane-diols on the intestinal uptake of nutrients and brush border membrane enzymes in the rat. Biochem. Med. Metab. Biol. 45:1991;161-170
44. Heilmair R., Lenke W., Lohr D. Toxicokinetics of diethylene glycol (DEG) in the rat. Arch Toxicol. 67:1993;655-666
45. Lenk W., Lohr W., Sonnenbichler J. Pharmacokinetics and biotransformation of diethylene glycol and ethylene glycol in the rat. Xenobiotica. 19:1989;961-979
46. Takeuchi Y., Yasukawa H., Yamaoka Y., Takahashi N., Tamura C., Morimoto Y., et al. Effects of oleic acid/propylene glycol on rat abdominal stratum corneum: lipid extraction and appearance or propylene glycol in the dermis measured by Fourier Transform Infrared/Attenuated Total Reflectance (FT-IR/ATR) spectroscopy. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 41:1993;1434-1437
47. Wittman J.S., Bawin R.R. Stimulation of gluconeogenesis by propylene glycol in the fasting rat. Life Sci. 15:1974;515-524
48. Arbour R., Esparis B. Osmolar gap metabolic acidosis in a 60-year-old man treated for hypoxemic respiratory failure. Chest. 118:2000;545-546
49. Ruddick J.A. Toxicology, metabolism, and biochemistry of 1, 2-propanediol. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 21:1972;102-111
50. Yu D.K., Sawchuk R.J. Pharmacokinetics of propylene glycol in the rabbit. J. Pharmacokinet. Biopharm. 15:1987;453-471
51. Kelner M.J., Bailey D.N. Propylene glycol as a cause of lactic acidosis. J. Anal. Toxicol. 9:1985;40-42
52. Huff E. The metabolism of 1, 2-propanediol. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 48:1961;506-517
53. Miller O.N., Bazzano G. Propanediol metabolism and its relation to lactic acid metabolism. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 119:1965;957-973
54. Oh M.S., Uribarri J., Alveranga D., Lazar I., Bazilinski N., Carroll H.J. Metabolic utilization and renal handling of D-lactate in men. Metabolism. 34:1985;621-625
55. Morshed K.M., Nagpaul J.P., Majumdar S., Amma M.K. Kinetics of oral propylene glycol-induced acute hyperlactatemia. Biochem. Med. Metab. Biol. 42:1989;87-94
56. Pares X., Farres J., Vallee B.L. Organ specific alcohol metabolism: placental chi-ADH. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 119:1984;1047-1055
57. Zorzano A., Herrera E. Differences in the kinetic properties and sensitivity to inhibitors of human placental, erythrocyte, and major hepatic aldehyde dehydrogenase isoenzymes. Biochem. Pharmacol. 39:1990;873-878
58. Sjoblom M., Pilstrom L., Morland J. Activity of alcohol dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde dehydrogenases in the liver and placenta during the development of the rat. Enzyme. 23:1978;108-115
59. Smith M., Hopkinson D.A., Harris H. Developmental changes and polymorphism in human alcohol dehydrogenase. Ann. Hum. Genet. 34:1971;251-271
60. Zorzano A., Herrera E. Differences in kinetic characteristics and in sensitivity to inhibitors between human and rat liver alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase. Gen. Pharmacol. 21:1990;697-702
61. Zorzano A., Herrera E. In vivo ethanol elimination in man monkey and rat: a lack of relationship between the ethanol metabolism and the hepatic activities of alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases. Life Sci. 46:1990;223-230
62. Agarwal D.P. Genetic polymorphisms of alcohol metabolizing enzymes. Pathol. Biol. 49:2001;703-709
63. Bosron W.F., Li T.K. Genetic polymorphism of human liver alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases, and their relationship to alcohol metabolism and alcoholism. Hepatology. 6:1986;502-510
64. Pietruszko R. Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase isozymes from mammalian liver-their structural and functional differences. Isozymes Curr. Top. Biol. Med. Res. 4:1980;107-130
65. Burnell J.C., Li T.K., Bosron W.F. Purification and steady-state kinetic characterization of human liver β3 alcohol dehydrogenase. Biochemistry. 28:1989;6810-6815
66. Chicella M., Jansen P., Parthiban A., Marlowe K.F., Bencsath F.A., Krueger K.P., et al. Propylene glycol accumulation associated with continuous infusion of lorazepam in pediatric intensive care patients. Crit. Care Med. 30:2002;2752-2756
67. USEPA. Research and development: health and environmental effects document for propylene glycol. Washington, DC: Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response; 1987.
68. Cate JC, Hedrick R. Propylene glycol intoxication and lactic acidosis. N Engl J Med 1980;303.
69. Klaassen CD, Amdur MO, Doull J. Casarett and Doull's toxicology - the basic science of poisons. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1996.
70. Huggon I., James I., Macrae D. Hyperosmolality related to propylene glycol in an infant treated with enoximone infusion. BMJ. 301:1990;19-20
71. Shanahan R. The dermatopharmacologic activity of propylene glycol in selected cosmetic formulations. In: Graduate Division, College of Pharmacy and Allied Health Professions. Jamaica, NY: St. John's University; 1977.
72. Mortensen B. Nordic chemicals, e.g. health effects of selected chemicals, vol. 2. Propylene glycol. TA:Nord PG 1993;29.
73. Hannuksela M., Forstrom L. Reactions to peroral propylene glycol. Contact Dermat. 4:1978;41-45
74. Catanzaro J.M., Smith J.G. Propylene glycol dermatitis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 24:1991;90-95
75. Moline JM, Golden AL, Highland JH, Wilmarth KR, Kao AS. Health effects evaluation of theatrical smoke, haze, and pyrotechnics. Equity-League Pension and Health Trust Funds; 2000.
76. Driscoll R, Burr GA, Wilcox TG, Reh C. Actors' Equity Association and The League of American Theatres and Producers, Inc. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH; 1992.
77. Cohen B.M., Crandall C. Physiologic benefits of "thermo fog" as a bronchodilator vehicle: acute ventilation responses of 93 patients. Am. J. Med. Sci. 247:1964;57-61
78. Weatherby J.H., Haag H.B. Toxicity of propylene glycol. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 27:1938;466-471
79. Braun H.A., Cartland G.F. The toxicity of propylene glycol. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 25:1936;746-749
80. Morris H.J., Nelson A.A., Calvery H.O. Observations on the chronic toxicities of propyplene glycol, ethylene glycol, diethyl glycol, ethylene glycol, mono-ethyl-ether, and diethylene glycol mono-ethyl-ether. J. Pharm. Exp. Ther. 74:1942;266-273
81. Gaunt I.F., Carpanini F.M., Grasso P., Lansdown A.B. Long-term toxicity of propylene glycol in rats. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 10:1972;151-162
82. Seidenfeld M.A., Hanzlik P.G. The general properties, actions and toxicity of propylene glycol. J. Pharm. Exp. Ther. 44:1932;109-121
83. Weil C.S., Woodside S., Smyth H.F. Results of feeding proplene glycol in the diet to dogs for two years. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 9:1971;479-490
84. Van Winkle W., Newman H.W. Further results of continued administration of propylene glycol. Food Res. 6:1941;509-515
85. Suber R.L., Deskin R., Nikiforov I., Fouillet X., Coggins C.R. Subchronic nose-only inhalation study of propylene glycol in Sprague-Dawley rats. Food Chem. Toxicol. 27:1989;573-583
86. Robertson O.H., Loosli C.G., Puck T.T., Wise H., Lemon H.M., Lester W.J. Tests for the chronic toxicity of propylene glycol and triethylene glycol on monkeys and rats by vapor inhalation and oral administration. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap. 91:1947;52-76
87. Clark C.R., Marshall T.C., Merickel B.S., Sanchez A., Brownstein D.G., Hobbs C.H. Toxicological assessment of heat transfer fluids proposed for use in solar energy applications. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 51:1979;529-535
88. Konradova V., Vavrova V., Janota J. Effect of the inhalation of a surface tension-reducing substance (propylene glycol) on the ultrastructure of epithelium of the respiratory passages in rabbits. Folia Morphol. (Praha). 26:1978;28-34
89. Bauer M.C., Weiss D.J., Perman V. Hematologic alterations in adult cats fed 6 or 12% propylene glycol. Am. J. Vet. Res. 53:1992;69-72
90. Saini M., Amma M.K., Dash S., Nagpaul J.P. Hematological alterations in propylene glycol-dosed female rats are minimal. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 38:1996;81-85
91. Christopher M.M., Perman V., White J.G., Eaton J.W. Propylene glycol-induced Heinz body formation and D-lactic acidosis in cats. Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. 319:1989;69-87
92. Pfeiffer E.H., Dunkelberg H. Mutagenicity of ethylene oxide and propylene oxide and of the glycols and halohydrins formed from them during the fumigation of foodstuffs. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 18:1980;115-118
93. Tucker J.D., Auletta A., Cimino M.C., Dearfield K.L., Jacobson-Kram D., Tice R.R., et al. Sister-chromatid exchange: second report of the Gene-Tox Program. Mut. Res. 297:1993;101-180
94. Swenberg J.A., Petzold G.L., Harbach P.R. In vitro DNA damage/alkaline elution assay for predicting carcinogenic potential. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 72:1976;732-738
95. Ishidate M.J., Sofuni T., Yoshikawa K., Hayashi M., Nohmi T., Sawada M., et al. Primary mutagenicity screening of food additives currently used in Japan. Food Chem. Toxicol. 22:1984;623-636
96. Litton Bionetics. I. Mutagenic evaluation of compound FDA 71-56, propylene glycol. Kensington, MD; 1974.
97. Hayashi M., Kishi M., Sofuni T., Ishidate M. Jr. Micronucleus Tests in Mice on 39 food additives and eight miscellaneous chemicals. Food Chem. Toxicol. 26:1988;487-500
98. Stenback F., Shubik P. Lack of toxicity and carcinogenicity of some commonly used cutaneous agents. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 30:1974;7-13
99. Demey H, Daelemans R, De Broe ME, Bossaert L. Propylene glycol intoxication due to intravenous nitroglycerin. Lancet 1984;1360.
100. Demey H.E., Daelemans R.A., Verpooten G.A., De Broe M.E., Van Campenhout C.M., Lakier F.V., et al. Propylene glycol-induced side effects during intravenous nitroglycerin therapy. Intensive Care Med. 14:1988;221-226
101. Casazza JP, Frietas J, Stambuk D, Morgan MY, Veech RL. The measurement of 1, 2-propanediol, D, L-2, 3-butanediol and meso-2, 3-butanediol in controls and alcoholic cirrhotics. Alcohol 1987;(Suppl):607-9.
102. Trancik R.J., Maibach H.I. Propylene glycol: irritation or sensitization? Contact Dermatitis. 8:1982;185-189
103. Martin G., Finberg L. Propylene glycol: a potentially toxic vehicle in liquid dosage form. J. Pediatr. 77:1970;877-878
104. Arulanantham K., Genel M. Central nervous system toxicity associated with ingestion of propylene glycol. J. Pediatr. 93:1978;515-516
105. Pruitt. American Academy of Pediatrics. "Inactive" ingredients in pharmaceutical products. Committee on drugs. Pediatrics 1985;76:635-43.
106. MacDonald M.G., Getson P.R., Glasgow A.M., Miller M.K., Boeckx R.L., Johnson E.L. Propylene glycol: increased incidence of seizures in low birth weight infants. Pediatrics. 79:1987;622-625
107. Yorgin P., Theodorou A., Al-Uzri A., Davenport K., Boyer-Hassen L., Johnson M. Propylene glycol-induced proximal renal tubular cell injury. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 30:1997;134-139
108. Lolin Y., Francis D.A., Flanagan R.J., Little P., Lascelles P.T. Cerebral depression due to propylene glycol in a patient with chronic epilepsy - the value of the plasma osmolal gap in diagnosis. Postgrad. Med. J. 64:1988;610-613
109. Arbour R.B. Propylene glycol toxicity related to high-dose lorazepam infusion: case report and discussion. Am. J. Crit. Care. 8:1999;499-506
110. Bedichek E., Kirschbaum B. A case of propylene glycol toxic reaction associated with etomidate infusion. Arch Intern. Med. 151:1991;2297-2298
111. Driscoll CD, Kubena MF, Neeper-Bradley TL. Propylene glycol: developmental toxicity gavage study III in CD-1 mice. Danbury, CT: Industrial Chemicals Division, Union Carbide Chemicals and Plastics Company Inc.; 1993.
112. FDRL. Teratologic evaluation of FDA 71-56 (propylene glycol) in mice, rats, hamsters and rabbits. Waverely, NY: Food and Drug Research Laboratories, Inc.; 1973.
113. Kavlock R.J., Short R.D., Chernoff N. Jr. Further evaluation of an in vivo teratology screen. Teratog. Carcinog. Mutagen. 7:1987;7-16
114. Gebhardt D.O. The teratogenic action of propylene glycol (propanediol-1, 2) and propanediol-1, 3 in the chick embryo. Teratology. 1:1968;153-161
115. Landauer W., Salam N. Aspects of dimethyl sulfoxide as solvent for teratogens. Dev. Biol. 28:1972;35-46
116. Kowalczyk C.L., Stachecki J.J., Schultz J.F., Leach R.E., Armant D.R. Effects of alcohols on murine preimplantation development: relationship to relative membrane disordering potency. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 20:1996;566-571
117. Paynter S.J., O'Neil L., Fuller B.J., Shaw R.W. Membrane permeability of human oocytes in the presence of the cryoprotectant propane-1, 2-diol. Fertil. Steril. 75:2001;532-538
118. Gook D.A., Edgar D.H., Stern C. The effects of cryopreservation regimens on the morphology of human ovarian tissue. Mol. Cell Endocrinol. 169:2000;99-103
119. Gook D.A., Edgar D.H., Stern C. Effect of cooling rate and dehydration regimen on the histological appearance of human ovarian cortex following cryopreservation in 1, 2-propanediol. Hum. Reprod. 14:1999;2061-2068
120. Gook D.A., Schiewe M.C., Osborn S.M., Asch R.H., Jansen R.P., Johnston W.I. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection and embryo development of human oocytes cryopreserved using 12-propanediol. Hum. Reprod. 10:1995;2637-2641
121. Gook D.A., Osborn S.M., Johnston W.I. Parthenogenetic activation of human oocytes following cryopreservation using 1, 2-propanediol. Hum. Reprod. 10:1995;654-658
122. Tucker M., Wright G., Morton P., Shanguo L., Massey J., Kort H. Preliminary experience with human oocyte cryopreservation using 1, 2-propanediol and sucrose. Hum. Reprod. 11:1996;1513-1515
123. Tucker M.J., Morton P.C., Wright G., Sweitzer C.L., Massey J.B. Clinical application of human egg cryopreservation. Hum. Reprod. 13:1998;3156-3159
124. Bruyas JF, Martins-Ferreira C, Fieni F, Tainturier D. The effect of propanediol on the morphology of fresh and frozen equine embryos. Equine Vet J Suppl 1997:80-4.
125. Damien M., Luciano A.A., Peluso J.J. Propanediol-induced alterations in membrane integrity, metabolism and developmental potential of mouse zygotes. Hum. Reprod. 4:1989;969-974
126. Johnson E.M., Gabel B.E., Larson J. Developmental toxicity and structure/activity correlates of glycols and glycol ethers. Environ. Health Perspect. 57:1984;135-139
127. NTP. Propylene glycol: reproduction and fertility assessment in CD-1 mice when administered in drinking water. Cincinnati, OH: National Toxicology Program; 1985.
128. Morrissey R.E., Lamb J.C.t., Morris R.W., Chapin R.E., Gulati D.K., Heindel J.J. Results and evaluations of 48 continuous breeding reproduction studies conducted in mice. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 13:1989;747-777
129. Guerrant N., Whitlock G., Wolff M., Dutcher R. Response of rats to diets containing varying amounts of glycerol and propylene glycol. Bull. Nat. Formula Commun. 15:1947;205-229
130. Bolon B., Bucci T.J., Warbritton A.R., Chen J.J., Mattison D.R., Heindel J.J. Differential follicle counts as a screen for chemically induced ovarian toxicity in mice: results from continuous breeding bioassays. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 39:1997;1-10