From good communists to even better capitalists? Entrepreneurial pathways in post-socialist Romania

East European Politics and Societies

Volumn 18, Issue 2, 2004, Pages

  Stoica, Cǎtǎlin Augustin ^a  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Entrepreneurship; Politics; Post socialist transition; Romania

Indexed keywords

EID: 2442604114     PISSN: 08883254     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0888325403259864     Document Type: Article

References (142)

1. "Viata Mondenǎ in România" [High-Life in Romania]. Meridianul Românesc [Romanian-American Community Weekly News] 4:186(2000): 26.
2. See Milovan Djilas, The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist System of Power (New York: Praeger, 1957); Leon Trostky, The Revolution Betrayed: What Is the Soviet Union and Where Is It Going? (New York: Pathfinder, 1972); George Konrad and Ivan Szelényi, The Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979).
3. See Milovan Djilas, The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist System of Power (New York: Praeger, 1957); Leon Trostky, The Revolution Betrayed: What Is the Soviet Union and Where Is It Going? (New York: Pathfinder, 1972); George Konrad and Ivan Szelényi, The Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979).
4. See Milovan Djilas, The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist System of Power (New York: Praeger, 1957); Leon Trostky, The Revolution Betrayed: What Is the Soviet Union and Where Is It Going? (New York: Pathfinder, 1972); George Konrad and Ivan Szelényi, The Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979).
5. Gil Eyal, Ivan Szelényi, and Eleanor Townsley, Making Capitalism without Capitalists: The New Ruling Elites in Eastern Europe (London: Verso, 1998).
6. I b i d.
7. See Elemer Hankiss, East European Alternatives (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1990); Jadwiga Staniszkis, "Political Capitalism In Poland," East European Politics and Societies 5 (1991): 127-41; David Stark, "Privatization in Hungary: From Plan to Market or from Plan to Clan?" East European Politics and Societies 4 (1990): 351-92.
8. See Elemer Hankiss, East European Alternatives (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1990); Jadwiga Staniszkis, "Political Capitalism In Poland," East European Politics and Societies 5 (1991): 127-41; David Stark, "Privatization in Hungary: From Plan to Market or from Plan to Clan?" East European Politics and Societies 4 (1990): 351-92.
9. See Elemer Hankiss, East European Alternatives (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1990); Jadwiga Staniszkis, "Political Capitalism In Poland," East European Politics and Societies 5 (1991): 127-41; David Stark, "Privatization in Hungary: From Plan to Market or from Plan to Clan?" East European Politics and Societies 4 (1990): 351-92.
10. Eyal et al., "Making Capitalism."
11. For an initial formulation of this thesis, see Ivan Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988). For other works that deal with the second economy under state socialism, see Martha Lampland, "Pigs, Party Secretaries, and Private Lives in Hungary," American Ethnologist 3 (1991): 459-79; Akos Róna-Tas, "The Second Economy as a Subversive Force: The Erosion of Party Power in Hungary," in Andrew Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in Hungary and China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 21-47; Akos Róna-Tas, The Great Surprise of the Small Transformation: The Demise of Communism and the Rise of the Private Sector in Hungary (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997); Maria Łoś, ed., The Second Economy in Marxist States (London: Macmillan, 1990). Following Lampland and Róna-Tas, by "second economy" I refer to economic activities organized outside the state sector, which were legally tolerated by communist regimes.
12. For an initial formulation of this thesis, see Ivan Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988). For other works that deal with the second economy under state socialism, see Martha Lampland, "Pigs, Party Secretaries, and Private Lives in Hungary," American Ethnologist 3 (1991): 459-79; Akos Róna-Tas, "The Second Economy as a Subversive Force: The Erosion of Party Power in Hungary," in Andrew Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in Hungary and China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 21-47; Akos Róna-Tas, The Great Surprise of the Small Transformation: The Demise of Communism and the Rise of the Private Sector in Hungary (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997); Maria Łoś, ed., The Second Economy in Marxist States (London: Macmillan, 1990). Following Lampland and Róna-Tas, by "second economy" I refer to economic activities organized outside the state sector, which were legally tolerated by communist regimes.
13. For an initial formulation of this thesis, see Ivan Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988). For other works that deal with the second economy under state socialism, see Martha Lampland, "Pigs, Party Secretaries, and Private Lives in Hungary," American Ethnologist 3 (1991): 459-79; Akos Róna-Tas, "The Second Economy as a Subversive Force: The Erosion of Party Power in Hungary," in Andrew Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in Hungary and China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 21-47; Akos Róna-Tas, The Great Surprise of the Small Transformation: The Demise of Communism and the Rise of the Private Sector in Hungary (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997); Maria Łoś, ed., The Second Economy in Marxist States (London: Macmillan, 1990). Following Lampland and Róna-Tas, by "second economy" I refer to economic activities organized outside the state sector, which were legally tolerated by communist regimes.
14. For an initial formulation of this thesis, see Ivan Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988). For other works that deal with the second economy under state socialism, see Martha Lampland, "Pigs, Party Secretaries, and Private Lives in Hungary," American Ethnologist 3 (1991): 459-79; Akos Róna-Tas, "The Second Economy as a Subversive Force: The Erosion of Party Power in Hungary," in Andrew Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in Hungary and China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 21-47; Akos Róna-Tas, The Great Surprise of the Small Transformation: The Demise of Communism and the Rise of the Private Sector in Hungary (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997); Maria Łoś, ed., The Second Economy in Marxist States (London: Macmillan, 1990). Following Lampland and Róna-Tas, by "second economy" I refer to economic activities organized outside the state sector, which were legally tolerated by communist regimes.
15. For an initial formulation of this thesis, see Ivan Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988). For other works that deal with the second economy under state socialism, see Martha Lampland, "Pigs, Party Secretaries, and Private Lives in Hungary," American Ethnologist 3 (1991): 459-79; Akos Róna-Tas, "The Second Economy as a Subversive Force: The Erosion of Party Power in Hungary," in Andrew Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in Hungary and China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 21-47; Akos Róna-Tas, The Great Surprise of the Small Transformation: The Demise of Communism and the Rise of the Private Sector in Hungary (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997); Maria Łoś, ed., The Second Economy in Marxist States (London: Macmillan, 1990). Following Lampland and Róna-Tas, by "second economy" I refer to economic activities organized outside the state sector, which were legally tolerated by communist regimes.
16. For an excellent overview of this thesis, see Eric Hanley, "Self-Employment in Post-communist Eastern Europe: A Refuge from Poverty or a Road to Riches?" Communist and Post-communist Studies 33 (2000): 379-402; see also T. Laky, "Characterization of Privatization in Hungary and Some of Its Effects," In Jacques Hersh and Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt, eds., The Aftermath of 'Real Existing Socialism': People and Technology in the Process of Transition, vol. 2. (London: Macmillian, 1996); Staniszkis, "Political Capitalism," 127-41.
17. For an excellent overview of this thesis, see Eric Hanley, "Self-Employment in Post-communist Eastern Europe: A Refuge from Poverty or a Road to Riches?" Communist and Post-communist Studies 33 (2000): 379-402; see also T. Laky, "Characterization of Privatization in Hungary and Some of Its Effects," In Jacques Hersh and Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt, eds., The Aftermath of 'Real Existing Socialism': People and Technology in the Process of Transition, vol. 2. (London: Macmillian, 1996); Staniszkis, "Political Capitalism," 127-41.
18. For an excellent overview of this thesis, see Eric Hanley, "Self-Employment in Post-communist Eastern Europe: A Refuge from Poverty or a Road to Riches?" Communist and Post-communist Studies 33 (2000): 379-402; see also T. Laky, "Characterization of Privatization in Hungary and Some of Its Effects," In Jacques Hersh and Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt, eds., The Aftermath of 'Real Existing Socialism': People and Technology in the Process of Transition, vol. 2. (London: Macmillian, 1996); Staniszkis, "Political Capitalism," 127-41.
19. For a theoretical analysis of forms of capital in transitional economies, see Akos Róna-Tas, "Path Dependence and Capital Theory: Sociology of the Post-communist Economic Transformation," East European Politics and Societies 12 (1998): 107-31.
20. Victor Nee, "A Theory of Market Transition" American Sociological Review 54 (1989): 663-81. For subsequent contributions to the so-called market transition debate, see Victor Nee, "Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism: Between Redistribution and Markets in China," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 267-82; Neil Fligstein, "The Economic Sociology of the Transitions from Socialism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1074-81; Victor Nee, "The Emergence of Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of Stratification in China," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 908-49; Anthony Oberschall, "The Great Transition: China, Hungary, and Sociology Exit Socialism into the Market," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1028-41; David Stark, "Recombinant Property in East European Capitalism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 993-1027; Ivan Szelényi Ivan and Eric Kostello, "The Market Transition Debate: Towards a Synthesis?" American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1082-86; Andrew Walder, "Markets and Inequality in Transitional Economies: Towards Testable Theories," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1060-73. For the most recent contributions to this debate, see Andrew Walder, "Markets and Income Inequalities in Rural China: Political Advantage in an Expanding Economy," American Sociological Review 67 (2002): 231-53; Andrew Walder, "Income Determination and Market Opportunity in Rural China, 1978-1996," Journal of Comparative Economics 30 (2002): 354-75.
21. Victor Nee, "A Theory of Market Transition" American Sociological Review 54 (1989): 663-81. For subsequent contributions to the so-called market transition debate, see Victor Nee, "Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism: Between Redistribution and Markets in China," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 267-82; Neil Fligstein, "The Economic Sociology of the Transitions from Socialism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1074-81; Victor Nee, "The Emergence of Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of Stratification in China," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 908-49; Anthony Oberschall, "The Great Transition: China, Hungary, and Sociology Exit Socialism into the Market," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1028-41; David Stark, "Recombinant Property in East European Capitalism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 993-1027; Ivan Szelényi Ivan and Eric Kostello, "The Market Transition Debate: Towards a Synthesis?" American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1082-86; Andrew Walder, "Markets and Inequality in Transitional Economies: Towards Testable Theories," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1060-73. For the most recent contributions to this debate, see Andrew Walder, "Markets and Income Inequalities in Rural China: Political Advantage in an Expanding Economy," American Sociological Review 67 (2002): 231-53; Andrew Walder, "Income Determination and Market Opportunity in Rural China, 1978-1996," Journal of Comparative Economics 30 (2002): 354-75.
22. Victor Nee, "A Theory of Market Transition" American Sociological Review 54 (1989): 663-81. For subsequent contributions to the so-called market transition debate, see Victor Nee, "Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism: Between Redistribution and Markets in China," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 267-82; Neil Fligstein, "The Economic Sociology of the Transitions from Socialism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1074-81; Victor Nee, "The Emergence of Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of Stratification in China," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 908-49; Anthony Oberschall, "The Great Transition: China, Hungary, and Sociology Exit Socialism into the Market," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1028-41; David Stark, "Recombinant Property in East European Capitalism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 993-1027; Ivan Szelényi Ivan and Eric Kostello, "The Market Transition Debate: Towards a Synthesis?" American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1082-86; Andrew Walder, "Markets and Inequality in Transitional Economies: Towards Testable Theories," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1060-73. For the most recent contributions to this debate, see Andrew Walder, "Markets and Income Inequalities in Rural China: Political Advantage in an Expanding Economy," American Sociological Review 67 (2002): 231-53; Andrew Walder, "Income Determination and Market Opportunity in Rural China, 1978-1996," Journal of Comparative Economics 30 (2002): 354-75.
23. Victor Nee, "A Theory of Market Transition" American Sociological Review 54 (1989): 663-81. For subsequent contributions to the so-called market transition debate, see Victor Nee, "Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism: Between Redistribution and Markets in China," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 267-82; Neil Fligstein, "The Economic Sociology of the Transitions from Socialism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1074-81; Victor Nee, "The Emergence of Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of Stratification in China," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 908-49; Anthony Oberschall, "The Great Transition: China, Hungary, and Sociology Exit Socialism into the Market," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1028-41; David Stark, "Recombinant Property in East European Capitalism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 993-1027; Ivan Szelényi Ivan and Eric Kostello, "The Market Transition Debate: Towards a Synthesis?" American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1082-86; Andrew Walder, "Markets and Inequality in Transitional Economies: Towards Testable Theories," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1060-73. For the most recent contributions to this debate, see Andrew Walder, "Markets and Income Inequalities in Rural China: Political Advantage in an Expanding Economy," American Sociological Review 67 (2002): 231-53; Andrew Walder, "Income Determination and Market Opportunity in Rural China, 1978-1996," Journal of Comparative Economics 30 (2002): 354-75.
24. Victor Nee, "A Theory of Market Transition" American Sociological Review 54 (1989): 663-81. For subsequent contributions to the so-called market transition debate, see Victor Nee, "Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism: Between Redistribution and Markets in China," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 267-82; Neil Fligstein, "The Economic Sociology of the Transitions from Socialism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1074-81; Victor Nee, "The Emergence of Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of Stratification in China," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 908-49; Anthony Oberschall, "The Great Transition: China, Hungary, and Sociology Exit Socialism into the Market," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1028-41; David Stark, "Recombinant Property in East European Capitalism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 993-1027; Ivan Szelényi Ivan and Eric Kostello, "The Market Transition Debate: Towards a Synthesis?" American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1082-86; Andrew Walder, "Markets and Inequality in Transitional Economies: Towards Testable Theories," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1060-73. For the most recent contributions to this debate, see Andrew Walder, "Markets and Income Inequalities in Rural China: Political Advantage in an Expanding Economy," American Sociological Review 67 (2002): 231-53; Andrew Walder, "Income Determination and Market Opportunity in Rural China, 1978-1996," Journal of Comparative Economics 30 (2002): 354-75.
25. Victor Nee, "A Theory of Market Transition" American Sociological Review 54 (1989): 663-81. For subsequent contributions to the so-called market transition debate, see Victor Nee, "Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism: Between Redistribution and Markets in China," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 267-82; Neil Fligstein, "The Economic Sociology of the Transitions from Socialism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1074-81; Victor Nee, "The Emergence of Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of Stratification in China," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 908-49; Anthony Oberschall, "The Great Transition: China, Hungary, and Sociology Exit Socialism into the Market," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1028-41; David Stark, "Recombinant Property in East European Capitalism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 993-1027; Ivan Szelényi Ivan and Eric Kostello, "The Market Transition Debate: Towards a Synthesis?" American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1082-86; Andrew Walder, "Markets and Inequality in Transitional Economies: Towards Testable Theories," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1060-73. For the most recent contributions to this debate, see Andrew Walder, "Markets and Income Inequalities in Rural China: Political Advantage in an Expanding Economy," American Sociological Review 67 (2002): 231-53; Andrew Walder, "Income Determination and Market Opportunity in Rural China, 1978-1996," Journal of Comparative Economics 30 (2002): 354-75.
26. Victor Nee, "A Theory of Market Transition" American Sociological Review 54 (1989): 663-81. For subsequent contributions to the so-called market transition debate, see Victor Nee, "Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism: Between Redistribution and Markets in China," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 267-82; Neil Fligstein, "The Economic Sociology of the Transitions from Socialism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1074-81; Victor Nee, "The Emergence of Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of Stratification in China," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 908-49; Anthony Oberschall, "The Great Transition: China, Hungary, and Sociology Exit Socialism into the Market," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1028-41; David Stark, "Recombinant Property in East European Capitalism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 993-1027; Ivan Szelényi Ivan and Eric Kostello, "The Market Transition Debate: Towards a Synthesis?" American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1082-86; Andrew Walder, "Markets and Inequality in Transitional Economies: Towards Testable Theories," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1060-73. For the most recent contributions to this debate, see Andrew Walder, "Markets and Income Inequalities in Rural China: Political Advantage in an Expanding Economy," American Sociological Review 67 (2002): 231-53; Andrew Walder, "Income Determination and Market Opportunity in Rural China, 1978-1996," Journal of Comparative Economics 30 (2002): 354-75.
27. Victor Nee, "A Theory of Market Transition" American Sociological Review 54 (1989): 663-81. For subsequent contributions to the so-called market transition debate, see Victor Nee, "Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism: Between Redistribution and Markets in China," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 267-82; Neil Fligstein, "The Economic Sociology of the Transitions from Socialism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1074-81; Victor Nee, "The Emergence of Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of Stratification in China," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 908-49; Anthony Oberschall, "The Great Transition: China, Hungary, and Sociology Exit Socialism into the Market," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1028-41; David Stark, "Recombinant Property in East European Capitalism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 993-1027; Ivan Szelényi Ivan and Eric Kostello, "The Market Transition Debate: Towards a Synthesis?" American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1082-86; Andrew Walder, "Markets and Inequality in Transitional Economies: Towards Testable Theories," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1060-73. For the most recent contributions to this debate, see Andrew Walder, "Markets and Income Inequalities in Rural China: Political Advantage in an Expanding Economy," American Sociological Review 67 (2002): 231-53; Andrew Walder, "Income Determination and Market Opportunity in Rural China, 1978-1996," Journal of Comparative Economics 30 (2002): 354-75.
28. Victor Nee, "A Theory of Market Transition" American Sociological Review 54 (1989): 663-81. For subsequent contributions to the so-called market transition debate, see Victor Nee, "Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism: Between Redistribution and Markets in China," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 267-82; Neil Fligstein, "The Economic Sociology of the Transitions from Socialism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1074-81; Victor Nee, "The Emergence of Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of Stratification in China," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 908-49; Anthony Oberschall, "The Great Transition: China, Hungary, and Sociology Exit Socialism into the Market," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1028-41; David Stark, "Recombinant Property in East European Capitalism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 993-1027; Ivan Szelényi Ivan and Eric Kostello, "The Market Transition Debate: Towards a Synthesis?" American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1082-86; Andrew Walder, "Markets and Inequality in Transitional Economies: Towards Testable Theories," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1060-73. For the most recent contributions to this debate, see Andrew Walder, "Markets and Income Inequalities in Rural China: Political Advantage in an Expanding Economy," American Sociological Review 67 (2002): 231-53; Andrew Walder, "Income Determination and Market Opportunity in Rural China, 1978-1996," Journal of Comparative Economics 30 (2002): 354-75.
29. Victor Nee, "A Theory of Market Transition" American Sociological Review 54 (1989): 663-81. For subsequent contributions to the so-called market transition debate, see Victor Nee, "Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism: Between Redistribution and Markets in China," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 267-82; Neil Fligstein, "The Economic Sociology of the Transitions from Socialism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1074-81; Victor Nee, "The Emergence of Market Society: Changing Mechanisms of Stratification in China," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 908-49; Anthony Oberschall, "The Great Transition: China, Hungary, and Sociology Exit Socialism into the Market," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1028-41; David Stark, "Recombinant Property in East European Capitalism," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 993-1027; Ivan Szelényi Ivan and Eric Kostello, "The Market Transition Debate: Towards a Synthesis?" American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1082-86; Andrew Walder, "Markets and Inequality in Transitional Economies: Towards Testable Theories," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1060-73. For the most recent contributions to this debate, see Andrew Walder, "Markets and Income Inequalities in Rural China: Political Advantage in an Expanding Economy," American Sociological Review 67 (2002): 231-53; Andrew Walder, "Income Determination and Market Opportunity in Rural China, 1978-1996," Journal of Comparative Economics 30 (2002): 354-75.
30. Nee, "Theory of Market Transition," 633.
31. Nee, "Social Inequalities."
32. I borrow the formulation of this question from Szonja Szelényi's Equally by Design: The Grand Experiment in Destratification in Socialist Hungary (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,(1998).
33. Needless to say, the classification I present in the following pages is by no means the only possible way of grouping various theoretical approaches to post-socialist entrepreneurship. See, for instance, Akos Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last? Entrepreneurship and Communist Cadres in the Transition from Socialism," American Journal of Sociology 100 (1994): 40-69; Akos Róna-Tas, "Path Dependence and Capital Theory." Depending on their theoretical interest, other readers might construct other and/or more refined categories and might attach them other labels. Taking into account the questions I intend to answer in the Romanian case, this classification serves my purpose.
34. Needless to say, the classification I present in the following pages is by no means the only possible way of grouping various theoretical approaches to post-socialist entrepreneurship. See, for instance, Akos Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last? Entrepreneurship and Communist Cadres in the Transition from Socialism," American Journal of Sociology 100 (1994): 40-69; Akos Róna-Tas, "Path Dependence and Capital Theory." Depending on their theoretical interest, other readers might construct other and/or more refined categories and might attach them other labels. Taking into account the questions I intend to answer in the Romanian case, this classification serves my purpose.
35. David Stark, "Path Dependence and Privatization Strategies in East Central Europe," East European Politics and Societies 6 (1992): 17-54.
36. Stark, "Recombinant Property."
37. Stark, "Privatization in Hungary."
38. Hankiss, East European Alternatives; Staniszkis, "Political Capitalism."
39. Hankiss, East European Alternatives; Staniszkis, "Political Capitalism."
40. For Hungary, see Stark, "Privatization in Hungary"; for Poland, see Staniszkis, "Political Capitalism."
41. For Hungary, see Stark, "Privatization in Hungary"; for Poland, see Staniszkis, "Political Capitalism."
42. Staniszkis, "Political Capitalism," 129.
43. Katherine Verdery, What Was Socialism, and What Comes Next? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 211.
44. Edgar L. Feige, "Underground Activity and Institutional Change," in Joan M. Nelson, Charles Tilly, and Lee Walker, eds., Transforming Post-communist Political Economies (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997), 29.
45. Staniszkis, "Political Capitalism," 129.
46. Verdery, What Was Socialism, 33.
47. Roman Frydman, Kenneth Murphy, and Andrejz Rapaczynski, "Capitalism with a Comrade's Face," Transition 2 (1996): 5-11.
48. Eyal et al., Making Capitalism.
49. I b i d.
50. Ibid., 117-18; see also Hanley, "Self-Employment in Eastern Europe."
51. Ibid., 117-18; see also Hanley, "Self-Employment in Eastern Europe."
52. Eyal et al., Making Capitalism.
53. David Stark, "Recombinant Property." See also Lawrence King, The Basic Features of Postcommunist Capitalism: Firms in Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia (Westport, CT: Praerger, 2001). For other "mutant" capitalist strategies, see Michael Burawoy and Pavel Krotov, "The Soviet Transition from Socialism to Capitalism: Worker Control and Economic Bargaining in the Wood Industry," American Sociological Review 57 (1992); 16-38; Michael Burawoy, Pavel Krotov, and Tatyana Lytkina, "Involution and Destitution in Capitalist Russia," Ethnography 1 (2000): 43-56.
54. David Stark, "Recombinant Property." See also Lawrence King, The Basic Features of Postcommunist Capitalism: Firms in Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia (Westport, CT: Praerger, 2001). For other "mutant" capitalist strategies, see Michael Burawoy and Pavel Krotov, "The Soviet Transition from Socialism to Capitalism: Worker Control and Economic Bargaining in the Wood Industry," American Sociological Review 57 (1992); 16-38; Michael Burawoy, Pavel Krotov, and Tatyana Lytkina, "Involution and Destitution in Capitalist Russia," Ethnography 1 (2000): 43-56.
55. David Stark, "Recombinant Property." See also Lawrence King, The Basic Features of Postcommunist Capitalism: Firms in Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia (Westport, CT: Praerger, 2001). For other "mutant" capitalist strategies, see Michael Burawoy and Pavel Krotov, "The Soviet Transition from Socialism to Capitalism: Worker Control and Economic Bargaining in the Wood Industry," American Sociological Review 57 (1992); 16-38; Michael Burawoy, Pavel Krotov, and Tatyana Lytkina, "Involution and Destitution in Capitalist Russia," Ethnography 1 (2000): 43-56.
56. David Stark, "Recombinant Property." See also Lawrence King, The Basic Features of Postcommunist Capitalism: Firms in Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia (Westport, CT: Praerger, 2001). For other "mutant" capitalist strategies, see Michael Burawoy and Pavel Krotov, "The Soviet Transition from Socialism to Capitalism: Worker Control and Economic Bargaining in the Wood Industry," American Sociological Review 57 (1992); 16-38; Michael Burawoy, Pavel Krotov, and Tatyana Lytkina, "Involution and Destitution in Capitalist Russia," Ethnography 1 (2000): 43-56.
57. For an overview of previous studies on proletarianization and "peasant-workers" theory, see Szelényl, Socialist Entrepreneurs, 45-50.
58. I b i d.
59. For other studies on the second economy, see Akos Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"; Akos Róna-Tas, The Great Surprise. For the Chinese case, see David Wank, Commodifying Communism: Business, Trust, and Politics in a Chinese City (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); David Wank, "Producing Property Rights: Strategies, Networks, and Efficiency in Urban China," in Jean Oi and Andrew Walder, eds., Property Rights and Economic Reform in China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999), 248-76.
60. For other studies on the second economy, see Akos Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"; Akos Róna-Tas, The Great Surprise. For the Chinese case, see David Wank, Commodifying Communism: Business, Trust, and Politics in a Chinese City (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); David Wank, "Producing Property Rights: Strategies, Networks, and Efficiency in Urban China," in Jean Oi and Andrew Walder, eds., Property Rights and Economic Reform in China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999), 248-76.
61. For other studies on the second economy, see Akos Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"; Akos Róna-Tas, The Great Surprise. For the Chinese case, see David Wank, Commodifying Communism: Business, Trust, and Politics in a Chinese City (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); David Wank, "Producing Property Rights: Strategies, Networks, and Efficiency in Urban China," in Jean Oi and Andrew Walder, eds., Property Rights and Economic Reform in China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999), 248-76.
62. For other studies on the second economy, see Akos Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"; Akos Róna-Tas, The Great Surprise. For the Chinese case, see David Wank, Commodifying Communism: Business, Trust, and Politics in a Chinese City (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); David Wank, "Producing Property Rights: Strategies, Networks, and Efficiency in Urban China," in Jean Oi and Andrew Walder, eds., Property Rights and Economic Reform in China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999), 248-76.
63. Akos Róna-Tas, "The Second Economy as a Subversive Force: The Erosion of Party Power in Hungary," in Andrew Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in Hungary and China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 61-84.
64. Andrew Walder, "The Quiet Revolution from Within: Economic Reform as a Source of Political Decline," in Andrew Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in Hungary and China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 1-24.
65. Besides the former socialist entrepreneurs, there are other individuals who might possess the cultural capital required to successfully function as businesspersons during market transition. These individuals are those who, being unemployed or "without an occupation," operated full-time on the black market or in the gray economy under state socialism. Labeled "social parasites" by the communist regime (i.e., individuals who did not work according to [their] abilities), these people were mainly involved in illicit trade. Gall Kligman, The Politics of Duplicity: Controlling Reproduction in Ceauşescu's Romania (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 33. This entrepreneurial type is similar to the one discussed by Wank in the case of China before the reform era, that is, the "speculator" entrepreneurial type. See Wank, Commodtfying Communism, 116-20. Although some of the former speculators are probably at an advantage in post-socialism, the survey data I employ in this article do not contain any information about an individual's (full-time) involvement in illegal economic activities before the fall of Ceausescu's regime.
66. Besides the former socialist entrepreneurs, there are other individuals who might possess the cultural capital required to successfully function as businesspersons during market transition. These individuals are those who, being unemployed or "without an occupation," operated full-time on the black market or in the gray economy under state socialism. Labeled "social parasites" by the communist regime (i.e., individuals who did not work according to [their] abilities), these people were mainly involved in illicit trade. Gall Kligman, The Politics of Duplicity: Controlling Reproduction in Ceauşescu's Romania (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 33. This entrepreneurial type is similar to the one discussed by Wank in the case of China before the reform era, that is, the "speculator" entrepreneurial type. See Wank, Commodtfying Communism, 116-20. Although some of the former speculators are probably at an advantage in post-socialism, the survey data I employ in this article do not contain any information about an individual's (full-time) involvement in illegal economic activities before the fall of Ceausescu's regime.
67. This section heavily draws on Eric Hanley's excellent discussion of theoretical approaches to self-employment. See Hanley, "Self-Employment in Eastern Europe."
68. Ibid., 380.
69. Ibid., 383-83.
70. I refer here to the market transition debate in the American Journal of Sociology and American Sociological Review, a debate that has been triggered by Victor Nee's article "A Theory of Market Transition" (1989). For contributions to this debate, see footnote 10 in this article.
71. I refer here to the market transition debate in the American Journal of Sociology and American Sociological Review, a debate that has been triggered by Victor Nee's article "A Theory of Market Transition" (1989). For contributions to this debate, see footnote 10 in this article.
72. Andrew Walder, "Privatization and Elite Mobility: Rural China, 1979-1996," Asia/Pacific Research Center Working Papers Series. (Stanford, CA: Institute for International Studies, Stanford University, 2002), 8.
73. For an excellent account of political and institutional differences among Central and Eastern European countries, see Vladimir Tismǎneanu, Reinventing Politics: Eastern Europe from Stalin to Havel (New York: Free Press, 1992).
74. Akos Róna-Tas, "Path Dependence and Capital Theory: Sociology of the Post-communist Economic Transformation," East European Politics and Societies 12 (1998): 107-131.
75. Eric Hanley, "Cadre Capitalism in Hungary and Poland: Property Accumulation among Communist-Era Elites," East European Politics and Societies 14 (2000): 176-77.
76. Eyal et al., Making Capitalism.
77. According to Fish, the best predictor of economic reforms - from a list that includes numerous economic, political, and sociocultural factors - is the outcome of the first post-communist competitive elections. See Steven Fish, "The Determinants of Economic Reform in the Postcommunist World," East European Politics and Societies 12 (1998): 31-78. That is, economic reforms were more likely to be introduced in those countries where the former communists lost the first free elections. For a critique of Fish, see Jeffrey Kopstein and David Reilly, "Explaining the Why of Why: A Comment on Fish's 'Determinants of Economic Reform in the Post-communist World'." East European Politics and Societies, 13 (1999): 613-24.
78. According to Fish, the best predictor of economic reforms - from a list that includes numerous economic, political, and sociocultural factors - is the outcome of the first post-communist competitive elections. See Steven Fish, "The Determinants of Economic Reform in the Postcommunist World," East European Politics and Societies 12 (1998): 31-78. That is, economic reforms were more likely to be introduced in those countries where the former communists lost the first free elections. For a critique of Fish, see Jeffrey Kopstein and David Reilly, "Explaining the Why of Why: A Comment on Fish's 'Determinants of Economic Reform in the Post-communist World'." East European Politics and Societies, 13 (1999): 613-24.
79. For a more detailed discussion of this interpretation, see Valerie Bunce, "Postsocialisms," in Sorin Antohi and Vladimir Tismǎneanu, eds., Between Past and Future: The Revolutions of 1989 and Their Aftermath (Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, 2000), 122-52.
80. See Peter Evans, Embedded Autonomy. States and Industrial Transformation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Peter Evans and James E. Rauch, "Bureaucracy and Growth: A Cross-National Analysis of the Effects of 'Weberian' State Structures on Economic Growth," American Sociological Review 64 (1999): 748-65.
81. See Peter Evans, Embedded Autonomy. States and Industrial Transformation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Peter Evans and James E. Rauch, "Bureaucracy and Growth: A Cross-National Analysis of the Effects of 'Weberian' State Structures on Economic Growth," American Sociological Review 64 (1999): 748-65.
82. Verdery, What Was Socialism.
83. Ibid., 214.
84. Ibid., 215.
85. The surveys were conducted by two private research agencies: Metro-Media Transylvania (May 2000) and the Center for Urban and Regional Sociology (November 2000).
86. Eyal et al., Making Capitalism.
87. Walder, "Privatization and Elite Mobility," 9.
88. In general, to the best of my knowledge, event history data have been less frequently used in studies of transition in Eastern Europe. For studies that employ data about individuals' sociodemographic characteristics before and three of fours years after the collapse of the communist regimes, see Joszef Böröcz and Akos Róna-Tas, "Small Leap Forward: Emergence of New Economic Elites," Theory and Society 24 (1995); 751-81; Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"; Eyal et al., Making Capitalism; Hanley, "Self-Employment in Eastern Europe." My surveys are similar to those employed by Róna-Tas in his study of post-socialist entrepreneurship in Hungary. Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?" Yet the Romanian surveys did not ask respondents about their income before 1990. Lacking this information, I could not address the issue of income inequality before and after 1990, as Róna-Tas did in his study.
89. In general, to the best of my knowledge, event history data have been less frequently used in studies of transition in Eastern Europe. For studies that employ data about individuals' sociodemographic characteristics before and three of fours years after the collapse of the communist regimes, see Joszef Böröcz and Akos Róna-Tas, "Small Leap Forward: Emergence of New Economic Elites," Theory and Society 24 (1995); 751-81; Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"; Eyal et al., Making Capitalism; Hanley, "Self-Employment in Eastern Europe." My surveys are similar to those employed by Róna-Tas in his study of post-socialist entrepreneurship in Hungary. Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?" Yet the Romanian surveys did not ask respondents about their income before 1990. Lacking this information, I could not address the issue of income inequality before and after 1990, as Róna-Tas did in his study.
90. In general, to the best of my knowledge, event history data have been less frequently used in studies of transition in Eastern Europe. For studies that employ data about individuals' sociodemographic characteristics before and three of fours years after the collapse of the communist regimes, see Joszef Böröcz and Akos Róna-Tas, "Small Leap Forward: Emergence of New Economic Elites," Theory and Society 24 (1995); 751-81; Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"; Eyal et al., Making Capitalism; Hanley, "Self-Employment in Eastern Europe." My surveys are similar to those employed by Róna-Tas in his study of post-socialist entrepreneurship in Hungary. Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?" Yet the Romanian surveys did not ask respondents about their income before 1990. Lacking this information, I could not address the issue of income inequality before and after 1990, as Róna-Tas did in his study.
91. In general, to the best of my knowledge, event history data have been less frequently used in studies of transition in Eastern Europe. For studies that employ data about individuals' sociodemographic characteristics before and three of fours years after the collapse of the communist regimes, see Joszef Böröcz and Akos Róna-Tas, "Small Leap Forward: Emergence of New Economic Elites," Theory and Society 24 (1995); 751-81; Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"; Eyal et al., Making Capitalism; Hanley, "Self-Employment in Eastern Europe." My surveys are similar to those employed by Róna-Tas in his study of post-socialist entrepreneurship in Hungary. Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?" Yet the Romanian surveys did not ask respondents about their income before 1990. Lacking this information, I could not address the issue of income inequality before and after 1990, as Róna-Tas did in his study.
92. In 1998 in Romania, the average monthly income was less than US$100, and about 34 percent of the population (or almost 8 million people) lived below the poverty line. See Cornelia Tesliuc and Lucian Pop, "Poverty, Inequality, and Social Protection" (Paper presented at the World Bank's Conference "Romania 2000: 10 Years of Transition - Past, Present, Future," 1999), 7. As compared to Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic, and Bulgaria, Romania had the highest poverty rate in 1998. Data from 2000 indicate that the situation further deteriorated: more than 40 percent of the Romanian population lived below the poverty line at the time of the surveys, while the average monthly income still was less than US$100.
93. Mikk Titma and Nancy Brandon Tuma, "Stratification Research in a Changing World," In J. Szmatka, Z. Mach, and J. Mucha, eds., Eastern European Societies on the Threshold of Change (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1993), 231-54.
94. Patricia H. Thronton, "The Sociology of Entrepreneurship," Annual Review of Sociology 25 (1999): 19-46.
95. The source for these variables was an open-ended question about a respondent's occupation before 1990. The answers entered In the database did not allow me to further distinguish between private farmers and those in collective farms before 1990. In contrast to Poland and Hungary, in socialist Romania, 96 percent of the agriculture was collectivized. Vlad Georgescu, Istoria românilor: de la origini pÎn? ̂n zilele noastre (Bucuresti: Ed. Humanitas, 1992). However, almost all peasants in collective farms were allowed to own and cultivate small plots of land, and - despite restrictions - some peasants engaged in limited production for the (gray) market.
96. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979); SzelÉnyi, Socialist Entrepreneurs.
97. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979); SzelÉnyi, Socialist Entrepreneurs.
98. Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"
99. Eyal et al., Making Capitalism.
100. Ideally, I should have employed a multinomial logistic regression. As compared to a binary logistic regression, the multinomial logistic regression has the advantage of simultaneously estimating all of the logits, which makes regression coefficients comparable across categories. Scott Long, Regression Models for Categorical and limited Dependent Variables (London: Sage, 1997), 150. Unfortunately, due to lack of cases (perfect determination) or to lack of variation in some of the categories of my independent variables, I could not employ a multinomial logistic regression. (See the note at the bottom of Table 3; see the appendix for an alternative modeling strategy.)
101. My availability sample consisted of thirty-five current and former entrepreneurs, ex-cadres and ordinary people turned entrepreneurs, from owners of large businesses to self-employed individuals to individual farmers. My findings are fairly consistent with those reported by other studies conducted in Romania. See Manuela StǍnculescu and Ionica Berevoescu, "Moşna - un sat care se reinventeaz?" ["Moşna - A Village That Reinvents Itself] Sociologie româneascǎ [Romanian Sociology] 1 (1999): 79-106; Sebastian Lǎzǎroiu, "Reţele de capital social şi antreprenori in Comişani" [Networks of Social Capital and Entrepreneurship in the Village of Comişani], Sociologie româneascǎ [Romanian Sociology] 2 (1999): 31-56.
102. My availability sample consisted of thirty-five current and former entrepreneurs, ex-cadres and ordinary people turned entrepreneurs, from owners of large businesses to self-employed individuals to individual farmers. My findings are fairly consistent with those reported by other studies conducted in Romania. See Manuela StǍnculescu and Ionica Berevoescu, "Moşna - un sat care se reinventeaz?" ["Moşna - A Village That Reinvents Itself] Sociologie româneascǎ [Romanian Sociology] 1 (1999): 79-106; Sebastian Lǎzǎroiu, "Reţele de capital social şi antreprenori in Comişani" [Networks of Social Capital and Entrepreneurship in the Village of Comişani], Sociologie româneascǎ [Romanian Sociology] 2 (1999): 31-56.
103. Eyal et al., Making Capitalism; Böröcz and Róna-Tas, "The Small Leap."
104. Eyal et al., Making Capitalism; Böröcz and Róna-Tas, "The Small Leap."
105. Eyal et al., Making Capitalism.
106. Georgescu, Istoria românilor, 310. Seemingly, in the late 1980s, 26 percent of the Romanian Communist Party members had a college degree or a diploma from other institutions of higher learning. In contrast, in 1990, around 9 percent of Romanians had a college degree. Also, in the late 1980s, 90.7 percent of activists in county, municipal, and town party committees were graduates of, or were attending, state institutions of higher education (cf. Library of Congress, "Country Studies: Romania Area Handbook Studies, 1989, available at http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/rotoc.html). Based on figures scarcely published in the party press in the 1980s, the same source estimates that Romanian Communist Party members represented 33 percent of Romania's working population, In my samples, around 30 percent of respondents were party members.
107. Georgescu, Istoria românilor, 310. Seemingly, in the late 1980s, 26 percent of the Romanian Communist Party members had a college degree or a diploma from other institutions of higher learning. In contrast, in 1990, around 9 percent of Romanians had a college degree. Also, in the late 1980s, 90.7 percent of activists in county, municipal, and town party committees were graduates of, or were attending, state institutions of higher education (cf. Library of Congress, "Country Studies: Romania Area Handbook Studies, 1989, available at http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/rotoc.html). Based on figures scarcely published in the party press in the 1980s, the same source estimates that Romanian Communist Party members represented 33 percent of Romania's working population, In my samples, around 30 percent of respondents were party members.
108. In 1962, in an attempt to distance himself from his Stalinistic predecessor and to increase Hungarians' support for socialism, Kádár advocated a "politics of alliance" summarized by his now famous dictum "he who is not against us is with us." For details regarding the political histories of Central and Eastern European communist regimes, see Vladimir Tismǎneanu's illuminating analyses in Reinventing Politics. For readers interested in the Romanian case, Tismǎneanu remains by far the most authoritative voice on the trials and tribulations of Romanian communism. See, for instance, Stalinism for all Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003), to name here but one of his many contributions to this topic.
109. In 1962, in an attempt to distance himself from his Stalinistic predecessor and to increase Hungarians' support for socialism, Kádár advocated a "politics of alliance" summarized by his now famous dictum "he who is not against us is with us." For details regarding the political histories of Central and Eastern European communist regimes, see Vladimir Tismǎneanu's illuminating analyses in Reinventing Politics. For readers interested in the Romanian case, Tismǎneanu remains by far the most authoritative voice on the trials and tribulations of Romanian communism. See, for instance, Stalinism for all Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism (Berkeley, CA: University of
110. Walder, "Markets and Income Inequality"; Litao Zhao, "Human Capital, Political Capital, and Family Business: The Market Transition Debate Revisited" (Paper presented at the Third Graduate Student Retreat, Center for Comparative Social Research, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 2001).
111. Walder, "Markets and Income Inequality"; Litao Zhao, "Human Capital, Political Capital, and Family Business: The Market Transition Debate Revisited" (Paper presented at the Third Graduate Student Retreat, Center for Comparative Social Research, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 2001).
112. Wank, Commodifying Communism.
113. Hanley, "Self-Employment in Eastern Europe"; Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"
114. Hanley, "Self-Employment in Eastern Europe"; Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"
115. Hanley, "Self-Employment in Eastern Europe"; Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"; Eyal et al., Making Capitalism.
116. Hanley, "Self-Employment in Eastern Europe"; Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"; Eyal et al., Making Capitalism.
117. Hanley, "Self-Employment in Eastern Europe"; Róna-Tas, "The First Shall Be the Last?"; Eyal et al., Making Capitalism.
118. Lǎzǎroiu, "Reţele de capital social."
119. Ibid., 53.
120. Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs, 45-50.
121. I b i d.
122. I b i d.
123. Katherine Verdery, "'Seeing Like a Mayor,' Or How Local Officials Obstructed Romanian Land Restitution," Ethnography 3 (2002): 5-33.
124. Evans, Embedded Autonomy
125. Embedded Autonomy, 47.
126. Lǎzǎroiu, "Reţele de capital social."
127. Hanley, "Self-Employment in Eastern Europe," 381, n. 2.
128. Results of analyses not reported here for reasons of space indicate that farming is the least rewarding entrepreneurial career in Romania. In terms of average monthly income, the most rewarding strategies are, in ascending order, self-employment, part-time entrepreneurship, and being an employer. Among employers, the ex-cadres make on average approximately 1.7 times more money (measured by personal monthly income) than do employers who were not cadres.
129. Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (New York: Bedminster, 1968).
130. See my previous discussion of Evans, Embedded Autonomy; for the original formulation of the effects of types of domination on the economy, see Weber, Economy and Society, 164-66.
131. See my previous discussion of Evans, Embedded Autonomy; for the original formulation of the effects of types of domination on the economy, see Weber, Economy and Society, 164-66.
132. Fligstein, "Economic Sociology of Market Transition."
133. Notable exceptions are Szelényi and his students Eyal, Townsley, and King, who have seriously embarked on an institutional analysis of postcommunist capitalism, very much in line with the Weberian tradition. By focusing on emerging forms of capitalism and taking into account factors ignored by other forms of "institutionalism," these authors, to their credit, also overcome some of the shortcomings of current developments in the new economic sociology. For such shortcomings of the new economic sociology, see Richard Swedberg, "Max Weber's Vision of Economic Sociology," in Mark Granovetter and Richard Swedberg, eds., The Sociology of Economic Life (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2001), esp. 88-92.
134. Eyal et al., Making Capitalism, 172-73.
135. Evans, Embedded Autonomy; see also Evans and Rauch, "Bureaucracy and Growth."
136. Evans, Embedded Autonomy; see also Evans and Rauch, "Bureaucracy and Growth."
137. Bunce, "Postsocialisms," 129.
138. Joszef Böröcz, "'Change Rules' Review Symposium," American Journal of Sociology 106 (2001): 1163.
139. Bunce, "Postsocialisms," 127.
140. Ibid., 129.
141. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Transition Report (London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2001).
142. Randall Collins, "Weber's Last Theory of Capitalism: A Systematization," In Mark Granovetter and Richard Swedberg, eds., The Sociology of Economic Life (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2001), 390 (emphasis added).