W. K. Brooks and the Oyster Question: Science, Politics, and Resource Management in Maryland, 1880-1930

Journal of the History of Biology

Volumn 31, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 383-424

  Keiner, Christine ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 2442561812     PISSN: 00225010     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1004393608972     Document Type: Article

References (258)

1. For primary sources, see Charles Hugh Stevenson, A Bibliography of Publications in the English Language Relative to Oysters and the Oyster Industries (N.p., n.d. [c. 1895]), and Victor S. Kennedy and Linda L. Breisch, Maryland's Oysters: An Annotated Bibliography (College Park: University of Maryland Sea Grant Program, 1981).
2. For primary sources, see Charles Hugh Stevenson, A Bibliography of Publications in the English Language Relative to Oysters and the Oyster Industries (N.p., n.d. [c. 1895]), and Victor S. Kennedy and Linda L. Breisch, Maryland's Oysters: An Annotated Bibliography (College Park: University of Maryland Sea Grant Program, 1981).
3. Francis Taggart Christy, Jr., "The Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource: The Maryland Oyster Industry" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1964), p. 67; Ernest Ingersoll, The History and Present Condition of the Fishery Industries: The Oyster-Industry (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1881), p. 251.
4. Francis Taggart Christy, Jr., "The Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource: The Maryland Oyster Industry" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1964), p. 67; Ernest Ingersoll, The History and Present Condition of the Fishery Industries: The Oyster-Industry (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1881), p. 251.
5. James L. Kellogg, Shell-Fish Industries (New York: Holt, 1910), p. 216.
6. Review of Brooks's The Oyster, in Pop. Sci. Monthly, 39 (1891), 700.
7. For early studies of oyster nutrition, see W. O. Atwater, "Report of Progress of an Investigation of the Chemical Composition and Economic Values of Fish and Invertebrates Used for Food," Report U.S. Fish Commission, 1880, VIII (1883), 231-286; W. O. Atwater, "Contributions to the Knowledge of the Chemical Composition and Nutritive Values of American Food Fishes and Invertebrates," Report U.S. Fish Commission, 1883, XI (1885), 433-500; W. O. Atwater, "Chemical Changes Produced in Oysters in Floating, and Their Effects upon the Nutritive Value," Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 16 (1887), 37-52; W. O. Atwater, "Oysters as Food," Report of the Oyster Investigation and Shell Fish Commission, for the Year Ending November 30, 1887(1888), pp. 53-78.
8. For early studies of oyster nutrition, see W. O. Atwater, "Report of Progress of an Investigation of the Chemical Composition and Economic Values of Fish and Invertebrates Used for Food," Report U.S. Fish Commission, 1880, VIII (1883), 231-286; W. O. Atwater, "Contributions to the Knowledge of the Chemical Composition and Nutritive Values of American Food Fishes and Invertebrates," Report U.S. Fish Commission, 1883, XI (1885), 433-500; W. O. Atwater, "Chemical Changes Produced in Oysters in Floating, and Their Effects upon the Nutritive Value," Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 16 (1887), 37-52; W. O. Atwater, "Oysters as Food," Report of the Oyster Investigation and Shell Fish Commission, for the Year Ending November 30, 1887(1888), pp. 53-78.
9. For early studies of oyster nutrition, see W. O. Atwater, "Report of Progress of an Investigation of the Chemical Composition and Economic Values of Fish and Invertebrates Used for Food," Report U.S. Fish Commission, 1880, VIII (1883), 231-286; W. O. Atwater, "Contributions to the Knowledge of the Chemical Composition and Nutritive Values of American Food Fishes and Invertebrates," Report U.S. Fish Commission, 1883, XI (1885), 433-500; W. O. Atwater, "Chemical Changes Produced in Oysters in Floating, and Their Effects upon the Nutritive Value," Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 16 (1887), 37-52; W. O. Atwater, "Oysters as Food," Report of the Oyster Investigation and Shell Fish Commission, for the Year Ending November 30, 1887(1888), pp. 53-78.
10. For early studies of oyster nutrition, see W. O. Atwater, "Report of Progress of an Investigation of the Chemical Composition and Economic Values of Fish and Invertebrates Used for Food," Report U.S. Fish Commission, 1880, VIII (1883), 231-286; W. O. Atwater, "Contributions to the Knowledge of the Chemical Composition and Nutritive Values of American Food Fishes and Invertebrates," Report U.S. Fish Commission, 1883, XI (1885), 433-500; W. O. Atwater, "Chemical Changes Produced in Oysters in Floating, and Their Effects upon the Nutritive Value," Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 16 (1887), 37-52; W. O. Atwater, "Oysters as Food," Report of the Oyster Investigation and Shell Fish Commission, for the Year Ending November 30, 1887(1888), pp. 53-78.
11. Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), pp. 28-65.
12. Samuel P. Hays, The Response to Industrialism 1885-1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 17-18.
13. The quote is from Maria Eduarda Gonçalves, review of Shelia Jasanoff's Science at the Bar, Sci. Tech. Human Val., 22 (1997), 258-264, p. 258.
14. See, for example, Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Sheila Jasanoff, Science at the Bar: Law, Science, and Technology in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Sheila Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisors as Policymakers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Yaron Ezrahi, The Descent of Icarus: Science and the Transformation of Contemporary Democracy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Expert Evidence: Interpreting Science in the Law, ed. Roger Smith and Brian Wynne (London: Routledge, 1989); Joel Primack and Frank von Hippel, Advice and Dissent: Scientists in the Political Arena (New York: Basic Books, 1974), p. 285.
15. See, for example, Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Sheila Jasanoff, Science at the Bar: Law, Science, and Technology in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Sheila Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisors as Policymakers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Yaron Ezrahi, The Descent of Icarus: Science and the Transformation of Contemporary Democracy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Expert Evidence: Interpreting Science in the Law, ed. Roger Smith and Brian Wynne (London: Routledge, 1989); Joel Primack and Frank von Hippel, Advice and Dissent: Scientists in the Political Arena (New York: Basic Books, 1974), p. 285.
16. See, for example, Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Sheila Jasanoff, Science at the Bar: Law, Science, and Technology in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Sheila Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisors as Policymakers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Yaron Ezrahi, The Descent of Icarus: Science and the Transformation of Contemporary Democracy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Expert Evidence: Interpreting Science in the Law, ed. Roger Smith and Brian Wynne (London: Routledge, 1989); Joel Primack and Frank von Hippel, Advice and Dissent: Scientists in the Political Arena (New York: Basic Books, 1974), p. 285.
17. See, for example, Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Sheila Jasanoff, Science at the Bar: Law, Science, and Technology in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Sheila Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisors as Policymakers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Yaron Ezrahi, The Descent of Icarus: Science and the Transformation of Contemporary Democracy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Expert Evidence: Interpreting Science in the Law, ed. Roger Smith and Brian Wynne (London: Routledge, 1989); Joel Primack and Frank von Hippel, Advice and Dissent: Scientists in the Political Arena (New York: Basic Books, 1974), p. 285.
18. See, for example, Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Sheila Jasanoff, Science at the Bar: Law, Science, and Technology in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Sheila Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisors as Policymakers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Yaron Ezrahi, The Descent of Icarus: Science and the Transformation of Contemporary Democracy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Expert Evidence: Interpreting Science in the Law, ed. Roger Smith and Brian Wynne (London: Routledge, 1989); Joel Primack and Frank von Hippel, Advice and Dissent: Scientists in the Political Arena (New York: Basic Books, 1974), p. 285.
19. See, for example, Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Sheila Jasanoff, Science at the Bar: Law, Science, and Technology in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Sheila Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisors as Policymakers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Yaron Ezrahi, The Descent of Icarus: Science and the Transformation of Contemporary Democracy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Expert Evidence: Interpreting Science in the Law, ed. Roger Smith and Brian Wynne (London: Routledge, 1989); Joel Primack and Frank von Hippel, Advice and Dissent: Scientists in the Political Arena (New York: Basic Books, 1974), p. 285.
20. Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch (above, n. 9), passim.
21. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (above, n. 6), p. 266.
22. Ibid., p. 273.
23. Ibid., pp. 272-273.
24. Maryland oyster interests enjoyed disproportionately large representation because each country possessed one senator and because tidewater counties outnumbered nontidal counties. As H. L. Mencken complained in 1928, "The vote of a malarious peasant on the lower Eastern Shore counts as much as the votes of 12 Baltimoreans." Not until 1964 did the tidewater counties' excessive representation end, when the U.S. Supreme Court mandate reapportionment. See respectively John Capper, Garrett Power, and Frank R. Shivers, Jr., Chesapeake Waters: Pollution, Public Health, and Public Opinion, 1607-1972 (Centreville, Md.: Tidewater Publishers, 1983), p. 81; Baltimore Evening Sun, July 23, 1928, quoted in Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 178; Victor S. Kennedy and Linda L. Breisch, "Sixteen Decades of Political Management of the Oyster Fishery in Maryland's Chesapeake Bay," J. Envir. Man., 16 (1983), 153-171.
25. Maryland oyster interests enjoyed disproportionately large representation because each country possessed one senator and because tidewater counties outnumbered nontidal counties. As H. L. Mencken complained in 1928, "The vote of a malarious peasant on the lower Eastern Shore counts as much as the votes of 12 Baltimoreans." Not until 1964 did the tidewater counties' excessive representation end, when the U.S. Supreme Court mandate reapportionment. See respectively John Capper, Garrett Power, and Frank R. Shivers, Jr., Chesapeake Waters: Pollution, Public Health, and Public Opinion, 1607-1972 (Centreville, Md.: Tidewater Publishers, 1983), p. 81; Baltimore Evening Sun, July 23, 1928, quoted in Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 178; Victor S. Kennedy and Linda L. Breisch, "Sixteen Decades of Political Management of the Oyster Fishery in Maryland's Chesapeake Bay," J. Envir. Man., 16 (1983), 153-171.
26. Maryland oyster interests enjoyed disproportionately large representation because each country possessed one senator and because tidewater counties outnumbered nontidal counties. As H. L. Mencken complained in 1928, "The vote of a malarious peasant on the lower Eastern Shore counts as much as the votes of 12 Baltimoreans." Not until 1964 did the tidewater counties' excessive representation end, when the U.S. Supreme Court mandate reapportionment. See respectively John Capper, Garrett Power, and Frank R. Shivers, Jr., Chesapeake Waters: Pollution, Public Health, and Public Opinion, 1607-1972 (Centreville, Md.: Tidewater Publishers, 1983), p. 81; Baltimore Evening Sun, July 23, 1928, quoted in Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 178; Victor S. Kennedy and Linda L. Breisch, "Sixteen Decades of Political Management of the Oyster Fishery in Maryland's Chesapeake Bay," J. Envir. Man., 16 (1983), 153-171.
27. L. Eugene Cronin, "Chesapeake Fisheries and Resource Stress in the 19th Century," J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 76 (1986), 188-198, p. 190.
28. Keith Rodney Benson, "William Keith Brooks: A Cast Study in Morphology and the Development of American Biology" (Ph.D. diss., Oregon State University, 1979), p. 118; Jane Maienschein, Transforming Traditions in American Biology, 1880-1915 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), p. 44.
29. Keith Rodney Benson, "William Keith Brooks: A Cast Study in Morphology and the Development of American Biology" (Ph.D. diss., Oregon State University, 1979), p. 118; Jane Maienschein, Transforming Traditions in American Biology, 1880-1915 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), p. 44.
30. Maienschein, Transforming Traditions (above, n. 16), pp. 49-55; W. K. Brooks, "Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory: Report of the Director for its First Six Years, 1878-83," Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ., 3 (April 1884), 91-94.
31. Maienschein, Transforming Traditions (above, n. 16), pp. 49-55; W. K. Brooks, "Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory: Report of the Director for its First Six Years, 1878-83," Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ., 3 (April 1884), 91-94.
32. E. A. Andrews, "William Keith Brooks," Science, 28 (December 4, 1908), 777-786, p. 779.
33. Edwin Grant Conklin, "William Keith Brooks," Nat. Acad. Sci. Biog. Mem., 8 (1913), 25-88, p. 60.
34. Andrews, "Brooks" (above, n. 18), p. 779.
35. John C. Burnham, How Superstition Won and Science Lost: Popularization Science and Health in the United States (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987), pp. 151-152.
36. Ibid, pp. 152, 160. Examples of Brooks's popular articles include "Influences Determining Sex," Pop. Sci. Monthly, January 1885, 232-330; "Can Man be Modified by Selection?" Pop. Sci. Monthly, May 1885, 15-25; "The Study of Inheritance," Pop. Sci. Monthly, February 1896, 480-492, and May 1896, 617-626; "Thoughts about Universities," Pop. Sci. Monthly, July 1899, 349-355; "The Wonderful Century," Pop. Sci. Monthly, November 1899, 25-31.
37. Ibid, pp. 152, 160. Examples of Brooks's popular articles include "Influences Determining Sex," Pop. Sci. Monthly, January 1885, 232-330; "Can Man be Modified by Selection?" Pop. Sci. Monthly, May 1885, 15-25; "The Study of Inheritance," Pop. Sci. Monthly, February 1896, 480-492, and May 1896, 617-626; "Thoughts about Universities," Pop. Sci. Monthly, July 1899, 349-355; "The Wonderful Century," Pop. Sci. Monthly, November 1899, 25-31.
38. Ibid, pp. 152, 160. Examples of Brooks's popular articles include "Influences Determining Sex," Pop. Sci. Monthly, January 1885, 232-330; "Can Man be Modified by Selection?" Pop. Sci. Monthly, May 1885, 15-25; "The Study of Inheritance," Pop. Sci. Monthly, February 1896, 480-492, and May 1896, 617-626; "Thoughts about Universities," Pop. Sci. Monthly, July 1899, 349-355; "The Wonderful Century," Pop. Sci. Monthly, November 1899, 25-31.
39. Ibid, pp. 152, 160. Examples of Brooks's popular articles include "Influences Determining Sex," Pop. Sci. Monthly, January 1885, 232-330; "Can Man be Modified by Selection?" Pop. Sci. Monthly, May 1885, 15-25; "The Study of Inheritance," Pop. Sci. Monthly, February 1896, 480-492, and May 1896, 617-626; "Thoughts about Universities," Pop. Sci. Monthly, July 1899, 349-355; "The Wonderful Century," Pop. Sci. Monthly, November 1899, 25-31.
40. Ibid, pp. 152, 160. Examples of Brooks's popular articles include "Influences Determining Sex," Pop. Sci. Monthly, January 1885, 232-330; "Can Man be Modified by Selection?" Pop. Sci. Monthly, May 1885, 15-25; "The Study of Inheritance," Pop. Sci. Monthly, February 1896, 480-492, and May 1896, 617-626; "Thoughts about Universities," Pop. Sci. Monthly, July 1899, 349-355; "The Wonderful Century," Pop. Sci. Monthly, November 1899, 25-31.
41. Ibid, pp. 152, 160. Examples of Brooks's popular articles include "Influences Determining Sex," Pop. Sci. Monthly, January 1885, 232-330; "Can Man be Modified by Selection?" Pop. Sci. Monthly, May 1885, 15-25; "The Study of Inheritance," Pop. Sci. Monthly, February 1896, 480-492, and May 1896, 617-626; "Thoughts about Universities," Pop. Sci. Monthly, July 1899, 349-355; "The Wonderful Century," Pop. Sci. Monthly, November 1899, 25-31.
42. Keith Benson, comments, July 1997.
43. Ronald L. Nyle, "Federal vs. State Agricultural Research Policy: The Case of California's Tulare Experiment Station, 1888-1909," Agric. Hist., 57 (1983), 436-449.
44. See, for example, W. K. Brooks, "Zoology and the Philosophy of Evolution," Science, 8 (December 23, 1898), 881-893.
45. Charles E. Rosenberg, "Science, Technology, and Economic Growth: The Case of the Agricultural Experiment Station Scientist, 1875-1914," No Other Gods: On Science and American Social Thought (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), pp. 153-172. For a case study of the turn-of-the-century movement to make basic research the primary work of experiment stations, see Nye, "Federal vs. State Agricultural Research Policy" (above, n. 24).
46. Charles E. Rosenberg, "Science, Technology, and Economic Growth: The Case of the Agricultural Experiment Station Scientist, 1875-1914," No Other Gods: On Science and American Social Thought (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), pp. 153-172. For a case study of the turn-of-the-century movement to make basic research the primary work of experiment stations, see Nye, "Federal vs. State Agricultural Research Policy" (above, n. 24).
47. The U.S. Fish Commission was established in 1871 in response to declining fish yields. To promote practicable fish culture, the commission funded scientific studies of the breeding habits and "embryological history" of such species as cod, shad, alewife, salmon, smelt, Spanish mackerel, striped bass, white perch, and the oyster. In 1881, Assistant Commissioner George Brown Goode stressed that the agency's applied work provided "opportunities for investigating many new problems in physiology and embryology." He reiterated this union at the 1883 International Fisheries Exhibition in London: "Pure and applied science have laboured together always in the service of the Fish Commission, their representatives working side by side in the same laboratories; indeed, much of the best work both in the investigation of the fisheries and in the artificial culture of fishes has been performed by men eminent as zoologists." In 1887, the Fish Commission was renamed the Bureau of Fisheries and transferred to the Department of Commerce. See G. Brown Goode, The First Decade of the United States Fish Commission: Its Plan of Work and Accomplished Results, Scientific and Economical (Salem, Mass: Salem Press, 1881), pp. 10, 5; G. Brown Goode, "A Review of the Fishery Industries of the United States and the Work of the U.S. Fish Commission," Papers of the Conferences Held in Connection with the Great International Fisheries Exhibition (London: Clowes, 1883), pp. 55-56; A. Hunter Dupree, Science in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Activities (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 237-238.
48. The U.S. Fish Commission was established in 1871 in response to declining fish yields. To promote practicable fish culture, the commission funded scientific studies of the breeding habits and "embryological history" of such species as cod, shad, alewife, salmon, smelt, Spanish mackerel, striped bass, white perch, and the oyster. In 1881, Assistant Commissioner George Brown Goode stressed that the agency's applied work provided "opportunities for investigating many new problems in physiology and embryology." He reiterated this union at the 1883 International Fisheries Exhibition in London: "Pure and applied science have laboured together always in the service of the Fish Commission, their representatives working side by side in the same laboratories; indeed, much of the best work both in the investigation of the fisheries and in the artificial culture of fishes has been performed by men eminent as zoologists." In 1887, the Fish Commission was renamed the Bureau of Fisheries and transferred to the Department of Commerce. See G. Brown Goode, The First Decade of the United States Fish Commission: Its Plan of Work and Accomplished Results, Scientific and Economical (Salem, Mass: Salem Press, 1881), pp. 10, 5; G. Brown Goode, "A Review of the Fishery Industries of the United States and the Work of the U.S. Fish Commission," Papers of the Conferences Held in Connection with the Great International Fisheries Exhibition (London: Clowes, 1883), pp. 55-56; A. Hunter Dupree, Science in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Activities (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 237-238.
49. The U.S. Fish Commission was established in 1871 in response to declining fish yields. To promote practicable fish culture, the commission funded scientific studies of the breeding habits and "embryological history" of such species as cod, shad, alewife, salmon, smelt, Spanish mackerel, striped bass, white perch, and the oyster. In 1881, Assistant Commissioner George Brown Goode stressed that the agency's applied work provided "opportunities for investigating many new problems in physiology and embryology." He reiterated this union at the 1883 International Fisheries Exhibition in London: "Pure and applied science have laboured together always in the service of the Fish Commission, their representatives working side by side in the same laboratories; indeed, much of the best work both in the investigation of the fisheries and in the artificial culture of fishes has been performed by men eminent as zoologists." In 1887, the Fish Commission was renamed the Bureau of Fisheries and transferred to the Department of Commerce. See G. Brown Goode, The First Decade of the United States Fish Commission: Its Plan of Work and Accomplished Results, Scientific and Economical (Salem, Mass: Salem Press, 1881), pp. 10, 5; G. Brown Goode, "A Review of the Fishery Industries of the United States and the Work of the U.S. Fish Commission," Papers of the Conferences Held in Connection with the Great International Fisheries Exhibition (London: Clowes, 1883), pp. 55-56; A. Hunter Dupree, Science in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Activities (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 237-238.
50. W. K. Brooks, James I. Waddell, and William Henry Legg, Report of the Oyster Commission of the State of Maryland (Annapolis: James Young, 1884), p. 85 Brooks was the chief author of the report.
51. William K. Brooks, The Oyster: A Popular Summary of a Scientific Study (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996 [1891, 1905]). For a recent vindication of Brooks's proposals, see Frank T. Gray, "Collective Farming on the Bay - It Doesn't Work," Baltimore Sun, January 14, 1993, p. 17A.
52. William K. Brooks, The Oyster: A Popular Summary of a Scientific Study (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996 [1891, 1905]). For a recent vindication of Brooks's proposals, see Frank T. Gray, "Collective Farming on the Bay - It Doesn't Work," Baltimore Sun, January 14, 1993, p. 17A.
53. For studies of the Maryland oyster culture debate from the 1940s through 1970s, see Isaiah Bowman, "Appendices III-IV," Report of the Commission on Conservation of Natural Resources to the Governor of Maryland (Annapolis, 1948); Christy, "Exploitation of the Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2); John J. Alford, "The Role of Management in Chesapeake Oyster Production," Geog. Rev., 63 (1973), 44-54; Victor S. Kennedy, "The Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery: Traditional Management Practices," in Marine Invertebrate Fisheries: Their Assessment and Management, ed. J. F. Caddy (New York: Wiley, 1989), pp. 455-477.
54. For studies of the Maryland oyster culture debate from the 1940s through 1970s, see Isaiah Bowman, "Appendices III-IV," Report of the Commission on Conservation of Natural Resources to the Governor of Maryland (Annapolis, 1948); Christy, "Exploitation of the Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2); John J. Alford, "The Role of Management in Chesapeake Oyster Production," Geog. Rev., 63 (1973), 44-54; Victor S. Kennedy, "The Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery: Traditional Management Practices," in Marine Invertebrate Fisheries: Their Assessment and Management, ed. J. F. Caddy (New York: Wiley, 1989), pp. 455-477.
55. For studies of the Maryland oyster culture debate from the 1940s through 1970s, see Isaiah Bowman, "Appendices III-IV," Report of the Commission on Conservation of Natural Resources to the Governor of Maryland (Annapolis, 1948); Christy, "Exploitation of the Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2); John J. Alford, "The Role of Management in Chesapeake Oyster Production," Geog. Rev., 63 (1973), 44-54; Victor S. Kennedy, "The Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery: Traditional Management Practices," in Marine Invertebrate Fisheries: Their Assessment and Management, ed. J. F. Caddy (New York: Wiley, 1989), pp. 455-477.
56. For studies of the Maryland oyster culture debate from the 1940s through 1970s, see Isaiah Bowman, "Appendices III-IV," Report of the Commission on Conservation of Natural Resources to the Governor of Maryland (Annapolis, 1948); Christy, "Exploitation of the Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2); John J. Alford, "The Role of Management in Chesapeake Oyster Production," Geog. Rev., 63 (1973), 44-54; Victor S. Kennedy, "The Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery: Traditional Management Practices," in Marine Invertebrate Fisheries: Their Assessment and Management, ed. J. F. Caddy (New York: Wiley, 1989), pp. 455-477.
57. Ingersoll, The Oyster-Industry (above, n. 2), p. 168; A. J. Nichol, The Oyster-Packing Industry of Baltimore: Its History and Current Problems (Baltimore: University of Maryland Press, 1937); Caswell Grave, A Manual of Oyster Culture in Maryland (Baltimore: George W. King, 1912), pp. 9-10; Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 160-161.
58. Ingersoll, The Oyster-Industry (above, n. 2), p. 168; A. J. Nichol, The Oyster-Packing Industry of Baltimore: Its History and Current Problems (Baltimore: University of Maryland Press, 1937); Caswell Grave, A Manual of Oyster Culture in Maryland (Baltimore: George W. King, 1912), pp. 9-10; Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 160-161.
59. Ingersoll, The Oyster-Industry (above, n. 2), p. 168; A. J. Nichol, The Oyster-Packing Industry of Baltimore: Its History and Current Problems (Baltimore: University of Maryland Press, 1937); Caswell Grave, A Manual of Oyster Culture in Maryland (Baltimore: George W. King, 1912), pp. 9-10; Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 160-161.
60. Ingersoll, The Oyster-Industry (above, n. 2), p. 168; A. J. Nichol, The Oyster-Packing Industry of Baltimore: Its History and Current Problems (Baltimore: University of Maryland Press, 1937); Caswell Grave, A Manual of Oyster Culture in Maryland (Baltimore: George W. King, 1912), pp. 9-10; Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 160-161.
61. W. N. Armstrong, Remarks on the Oyster Industries of Virginia, Made Before the Committee of the General Assembly on the Chesapeake Bay and Its Tributaries (Hampton: Normal School Press, 1884), p. 8.
62. Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), p. 12.
63. Francis Winslow, Report on the Oyster Beds of the James River, Virginia, and of Tangier and Pocomoke Sounds, Maryland and Virginia: U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1881 (Washington, D.C.: 1882), p. 344.
64. "The Chesapeake Oyster-Beds" (review of Winslow's report), Science, 2 (September 28, 1883), 440-443, pp. 441, 442.
65. H. J. Rice, "Experiments in Oyster Propagation," Trans. Amer. Fish-Cultural Assn., 12 (1883), 49-56.
66. W. K. Brooks, "Abstract of Observations on the Development of the American Oyster,' Zool. Anz., 1879; W. K. Brooks, "Abstract of Observation upon the Artificial Fertilization of Oyster Eggs, and on the Embryology of the American Oyster," Amer. J. Sci. (1879).
67. W. K. Brooks, "Abstract of Observations on the Development of the American Oyster,' Zool. Anz., 1879; W. K. Brooks, "Abstract of Observation upon the Artificial Fertilization of Oyster Eggs, and on the Embryology of the American Oyster," Amer. J. Sci. (1879).
68. The commission, which had been organized in 1874 to augment declining fish populations through artificial propagation, spent the next several years working with the federal commission to stock shad, rockfish, brook trout, California salmon, and German carp in Maryland waters, and later to breed smelt, herring, rockfish, shad, and trout in "fish-cultural stations" on the Susquehanna River and in Baltimore's Druid Hill Park. See W. K. Brooks, "Development of the American Oyster," Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Maryland (Annapolis: Iglehart, 1880), vi-1.
69. The species is now known as Crassostrea virginica.
70. Brooks, "Development of the American Oyster" (above, n. 38), p. 1; H. Newell Martin, "The Oyster Question," Science, 17 (March 27, 1891), 169-170. Martin taught the physiological component of Hopkins's biology program; Brooks taught the morphological section.
71. Brooks, "Development of the American Oyster" (above, n. 38), p. 1; H. Newell Martin, "The Oyster Question," Science, 17 (March 27, 1891), 169-170. Martin taught the physiological component of Hopkins's biology program; Brooks taught the morphological section.
72. Martin, "The Oyster Question" (above, n. 40), p. 169; Brooks, "Development of the American Oyster" (above, n. 38), pp. 2-3.
73. Martin, "The Oyster Question" (above, n. 40), p. 169; Brooks, "Development of the American Oyster" (above, n. 38), pp. 2-3.
74. Martin, "The Oyster Question" (above, n. 40), p. 169; Brooks, "Development of the American Oyster" (above, n. 38), pp. 3-4, 39.
75. Martin, "The Oyster Question" (above, n. 40), p. 169; Brooks, "Development of the American Oyster" (above, n. 38), pp. 3-4, 39.
76. The discovery also had important implications for experimental embryology. Artificial fertilization made it possible to study all the developmental stages of the oyster by providing a cheap, virtually limitless supply of experimental organisms. Because a steady supply of fresh sea water was needed to sustain the growth of artificially hatched oysters, in 1880 the university purchased a steam-powered engine and apparatus for breeding oysters on a small scale, thereby allowing Brooks and several graduate students to continue the oyster studies for several years. Martin, "The Oyster Question" (above, n. 40), p. 169.
77. Ferguson and Hughlett, Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Maryland (above, n. 38), p. lxxiv. Oyster farming refers to the rearing of oysters from the egg. Three other branches of oyster culture - planting (the "growing" of mature oysters from seed oysters), reshelling (the augmentation of natural oyster beds), and fattening (the conditioning of mature oysters for market) - are discussed below.
78. Brooks, "Development of the American Oyster" (above, n. 38), p. 38.
79. Thus, the report did not actually discuss oyster culture.
80. Brooks, "Development of the American Oyster" (above, n. 38), pp. 4, 38-39. Brooks's conclusion that Ostrea virginica never changed its sexual type during its lifetime was later discredited.
81. Quoted in John R. Philpots, Oysters and All about Them, Volume II (London: John Richardson, 1891), p. 1145.
82. Goode, "Review of the Fishery Industries" (above, n. 27), p. 83.
83. Charles T. White, "Mr. Oyster Comes to Town," New York World, September 1, 1889, p. 1. See also Martin, "The Oyster Question" (above, n. 40), p. 169.
84. Charles T. White, "Mr. Oyster Comes to Town," New York World, September 1, 1889, p. 1. See also Martin, "The Oyster Question" (above, n. 40), p. 169.
85. Ferguson and Hughlett, Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Maryland (above, n. 38), p. lxxiii.
86. Conklin, "Brooks" (above, n. 19), p. 60; Ingersoll, The Oyster-Industry (above, n. 2), pp. 210-219; Benson, "Brooks" (above, n. 16), p. 127.
87. Conklin, "Brooks" (above, n. 19), p. 60; Ingersoll, The Oyster-Industry (above, n. 2), pp. 210-219; Benson, "Brooks" (above, n. 16), p. 127.
88. Conklin, "Brooks" (above, n. 19), p. 60; Ingersoll, The Oyster-Industry (above, n. 2), pp. 210-219; Benson, "Brooks" (above, n. 16), p. 127.
89. Brooks, The Oyster (above, n. 29), p. 181 (all quotes from the 1905 edition).
90. Brooks, Report of the Oyster Commission (above, n. 28), p. 13. The Oyster Navy is described in detail below (n. 63).
91. Ibid., pp. 13, 18.
92. Ibid., pp. 5-6.
93. Armstrong, Remarks on the Oyster Industries of Virginia (above, n. 32), p. 5.
94. Brooks, Report of the Oyster Commission (above, n. 28), p. 6.
95. Ibid., p. 30.
96. Ibid., pp. 34-35.
97. Ibid., pp. 165-183; Benson, "Brooks" (above, n. 16), p. 128; Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), p. 160.
98. Ibid., pp. 165-183; Benson, "Brooks" (above, n. 16), p. 128; Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), p. 160.
99. Ibid., pp. 165-183; Benson, "Brooks" (above, n. 16), p. 128; Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), p. 160.
100. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science, 162 (December 13, 1968), 1243-1248. See also Garrett Power, "More about Oysters Than You Wanted to Know," Md. Law Rev., 30 (1970), 199-225. Victor Kennedy states that private oyster grounds typically outproduce public ones, "probably due to the better culture and management practices of leaseholders whose capital is at risk." See Kennedy, "The Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery" (above, n. 30), p. 471. For alternative views, see George D. Santopietro and Leonard A. Shabman, "Can Privatization be Inefficient? The Case of the Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery," J. Econ. Issues, 26 (1992), 407-419, and David Feeny, Susan Hanna, and Arthur F. McEvoy, "Questioning the Assumption of the 'Tragedy of the Commons' Model of Fisheries," Land Econ., 72 (1996), 187-205.
101. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science, 162 (December 13, 1968), 1243-1248. See also Garrett Power, "More about Oysters Than You Wanted to Know," Md. Law Rev., 30 (1970), 199-225. Victor Kennedy states that private oyster grounds typically outproduce public ones, "probably due to the better culture and management practices of leaseholders whose capital is at risk." See Kennedy, "The Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery" (above, n. 30), p. 471. For alternative views, see George D. Santopietro and Leonard A. Shabman, "Can Privatization be Inefficient? The Case of the Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery," J. Econ. Issues, 26 (1992), 407-419, and David Feeny, Susan Hanna, and Arthur F. McEvoy, "Questioning the Assumption of the 'Tragedy of the Commons' Model of Fisheries," Land Econ., 72 (1996), 187-205.
102. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science, 162 (December 13, 1968), 1243-1248. See also Garrett Power, "More about Oysters Than You Wanted to Know," Md. Law Rev., 30 (1970), 199-225. Victor Kennedy states that private oyster grounds typically outproduce public ones, "probably due to the better culture and management practices of leaseholders whose capital is at risk." See Kennedy, "The Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery" (above, n. 30), p. 471. For alternative views, see George D. Santopietro and Leonard A. Shabman, "Can Privatization be Inefficient? The Case of the Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery," J. Econ. Issues, 26 (1992), 407-419, and David Feeny, Susan Hanna, and Arthur F. McEvoy, "Questioning the Assumption of the 'Tragedy of the Commons' Model of Fisheries," Land Econ., 72 (1996), 187-205.
103. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science, 162 (December 13, 1968), 1243-1248. See also Garrett Power, "More about Oysters Than You Wanted to Know," Md. Law Rev., 30 (1970), 199-225. Victor Kennedy states that private oyster grounds typically outproduce public ones, "probably due to the better culture and management practices of leaseholders whose capital is at risk." See Kennedy, "The Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery" (above, n. 30), p. 471. For alternative views, see George D. Santopietro and Leonard A. Shabman, "Can Privatization be Inefficient? The Case of the Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery," J. Econ. Issues, 26 (1992), 407-419, and David Feeny, Susan Hanna, and Arthur F. McEvoy, "Questioning the Assumption of the 'Tragedy of the Commons' Model of Fisheries," Land Econ., 72 (1996), 187-205.
104. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science, 162 (December 13, 1968), 1243-1248. See also Garrett Power, "More about Oysters Than You Wanted to Know," Md. Law Rev., 30 (1970), 199-225. Victor Kennedy states that private oyster grounds typically outproduce public ones, "probably due to the better culture and management practices of leaseholders whose capital is at risk." See Kennedy, "The Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery" (above, n. 30), p. 471. For alternative views, see George D. Santopietro and Leonard A. Shabman, "Can Privatization be Inefficient? The Case of the Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery," J. Econ. Issues, 26 (1992), 407-419, and David Feeny, Susan Hanna, and Arthur F. McEvoy, "Questioning the Assumption of the 'Tragedy of the Commons' Model of Fisheries," Land Econ., 72 (1996), 187-205.
105. After the Civil War, in recognition of various tidewater county laws, the Maryland legislature sanctioned dredging but as a conservation measure forbade dredging under power and in rivers emptying into the bay. Tension between tongers and dredgers quickly arose, because dredgers raked over river oyster beds reserved for tongers. Tongers, whose tools prevented them from encroaching on the deep-water dredging grounds, retaliated by taking the law into their own hands with loaded rifles. To quell the resulting anarchy and enforce the 1865-1866 General License Law, which levied a tax upon all oysters caught on natural beds, the Maryland General Assembly established the State Fisheries Force, popularly known as the "Oyster Navy," in 1868. See Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 157-158; Kellogg, Shell-Fish Industries (above, n. 3), p. 218; Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), pp. 11-12; John R. Wennersten, The Oyster Wars of Chesapeake Bay (Centreville, Md.: Tidewater Publishers, 1981) ; "Our Oyster Navy: Small in Size but Plucky," Baltimore Sun, November 20, 1888.
106. After the Civil War, in recognition of various tidewater county laws, the Maryland legislature sanctioned dredging but as a conservation measure forbade dredging under power and in rivers emptying into the bay. Tension between tongers and dredgers quickly arose, because dredgers raked over river oyster beds reserved for tongers. Tongers, whose tools prevented them from encroaching on the deep-water dredging grounds, retaliated by taking the law into their own hands with loaded rifles. To quell the resulting anarchy and enforce the 1865-1866 General License Law, which levied a tax upon all oysters caught on natural beds, the Maryland General Assembly established the State Fisheries Force, popularly known as the "Oyster Navy," in 1868. See Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 157-158; Kellogg, Shell-Fish Industries (above, n. 3), p. 218; Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), pp. 11-12; John R. Wennersten, The Oyster Wars of Chesapeake Bay (Centreville, Md.: Tidewater Publishers, 1981) ; "Our Oyster Navy: Small in Size but Plucky," Baltimore Sun, November 20, 1888.
107. After the Civil War, in recognition of various tidewater county laws, the Maryland legislature sanctioned dredging but as a conservation measure forbade dredging under power and in rivers emptying into the bay. Tension between tongers and dredgers quickly arose, because dredgers raked over river oyster beds reserved for tongers. Tongers, whose tools prevented them from encroaching on the deep-water dredging grounds, retaliated by taking the law into their own hands with loaded rifles. To quell the resulting anarchy and enforce the 1865-1866 General License Law, which levied a tax upon all oysters caught on natural beds, the Maryland General Assembly established the State Fisheries Force, popularly known as the "Oyster Navy," in 1868. See Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 157-158; Kellogg, Shell-Fish Industries (above, n. 3), p. 218; Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), pp. 11-12; John R. Wennersten, The Oyster Wars of Chesapeake Bay (Centreville, Md.: Tidewater Publishers, 1981) ; "Our Oyster Navy: Small in Size but Plucky," Baltimore Sun, November 20, 1888.
108. After the Civil War, in recognition of various tidewater county laws, the Maryland legislature sanctioned dredging but as a conservation measure forbade dredging under power and in rivers emptying into the bay. Tension between tongers and dredgers quickly arose, because dredgers raked over river oyster beds reserved for tongers. Tongers, whose tools prevented them from encroaching on the deep-water dredging grounds, retaliated by taking the law into their own hands with loaded rifles. To quell the resulting anarchy and enforce the 1865-1866 General License Law, which levied a tax upon all oysters caught on natural beds, the Maryland General Assembly established the State Fisheries Force, popularly known as the "Oyster Navy," in 1868. See Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 157-158; Kellogg, Shell-Fish Industries (above, n. 3), p. 218; Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), pp. 11-12; John R. Wennersten, The Oyster Wars of Chesapeake Bay (Centreville, Md.: Tidewater Publishers, 1981) ; "Our Oyster Navy: Small in Size but Plucky," Baltimore Sun, November 20, 1888.
109. After the Civil War, in recognition of various tidewater county laws, the Maryland legislature sanctioned dredging but as a conservation measure forbade dredging under power and in rivers emptying into the bay. Tension between tongers and dredgers quickly arose, because dredgers raked over river oyster beds reserved for tongers. Tongers, whose tools prevented them from encroaching on the deep-water dredging grounds, retaliated by taking the law into their own hands with loaded rifles. To quell the resulting anarchy and enforce the 1865-1866 General License Law, which levied a tax upon all oysters caught on natural beds, the Maryland General Assembly established the State Fisheries Force, popularly known as the "Oyster Navy," in 1868. See Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 157-158; Kellogg, Shell-Fish Industries (above, n. 3), p. 218; Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), pp. 11-12; John R. Wennersten, The Oyster Wars of Chesapeake Bay (Centreville, Md.: Tidewater Publishers, 1981) ; "Our Oyster Navy: Small in Size but Plucky," Baltimore Sun, November 20, 1888.
110. For example, whereas the 1883 revenues were $205,000, "the expenditure in collecting that revenue, and in feeble worthless attempts to protect the industry, amounted to about $217,000." Armstrong, Remarks on the Oyster Industries of Virginia (above, n. 32), p. 6.
111. Brooks, Report of the Oyster Commission (above, n. 28), p. 11.
112. Ibid., pp. 9-10.
113. Ibid., p. 8.
114. Ibid., p. 73.
115. Ingersoll, The Oyster Industry (above, n. 2), pp. 61-66.
116. Ibid.
117. Brooks, Report of the Oyster Commission (above, n. 28), pp. 146-153.
118. Ibid., p. 151.
119. Quoted in William M. Hudson, "The Shell Fisheries of Connecticut," Trans. Amer. Fish-Cultural Assn., 13 (1884), 124-146, p. 145. See also H. C. Hovey, "Oyster-Farming in Connecticut Waters," Science, 2 (September 14, 1883), 376-377; "The Oyster-Fishery in Connecticut," Science, 5 (March 20, 1885), 234: "Shell-Fish in Connecticut," Science, 7 (January 15, 1886), 59-60; "Propagation of Oysters," New York Times, 21 January 1889, 3.
120. Quoted in William M. Hudson, "The Shell Fisheries of Connecticut," Trans. Amer. Fish-Cultural Assn., 13 (1884), 124-146, p. 145. See also H. C. Hovey, "Oyster-Farming in Connecticut Waters," Science, 2 (September 14, 1883), 376-377; "The Oyster-Fishery in Connecticut," Science, 5 (March 20, 1885), 234: "Shell-Fish in Connecticut," Science, 7 (January 15, 1886), 59-60; "Propagation of Oysters," New York Times, 21 January 1889, 3.
121. Quoted in William M. Hudson, "The Shell Fisheries of Connecticut," Trans. Amer. Fish-Cultural Assn., 13 (1884), 124-146, p. 145. See also H. C. Hovey, "Oyster-Farming in Connecticut Waters," Science, 2 (September 14, 1883), 376-377; "The Oyster-Fishery in Connecticut," Science, 5 (March 20, 1885), 234: "Shell-Fish in Connecticut," Science, 7 (January 15, 1886), 59-60; "Propagation of Oysters," New York Times, 21 January 1889, 3.
122. Quoted in William M. Hudson, "The Shell Fisheries of Connecticut," Trans. Amer. Fish-Cultural Assn., 13 (1884), 124-146, p. 145. See also H. C. Hovey, "Oyster-Farming in Connecticut Waters," Science, 2 (September 14, 1883), 376-377; "The Oyster-Fishery in Connecticut," Science, 5 (March 20, 1885), 234: "Shell-Fish in Connecticut," Science, 7 (January 15, 1886), 59-60; "Propagation of Oysters," New York Times, 21 January 1889, 3.
123. Quoted in William M. Hudson, "The Shell Fisheries of Connecticut," Trans. Amer. Fish-Cultural Assn., 13 (1884), 124-146, p. 145. See also H. C. Hovey, "Oyster-Farming in Connecticut Waters," Science, 2 (September 14, 1883), 376-377; "The Oyster-Fishery in Connecticut," Science, 5 (March 20, 1885), 234: "Shell-Fish in Connecticut," Science, 7 (January 15, 1886), 59-60; "Propagation of Oysters," New York Times, 21 January 1889, 3.
124. Brooks, Report of the Oyster Commission (above, n. 28), p. 146.
125. Ibid., p. 31. In recognition of the advances made by Virginia and North Carolina, Brooks added their names to this quote in the 1905 edition of The Oyster (above, n. 29), p. 198.
126. Ibid., p. 31. In recognition of the advances made by Virginia and North Carolina, Brooks added their names to this quote in the 1905 edition of The Oyster (above, n. 29), p. 198.
127. Armstrong, Remarks on the Oyster Industries of Virginia (above, n. 32), pp. 13-14.
128. Brooks, Report of the Oyster Commission (above, n. 28), p. 139.
129. Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), p. 161.
130. Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), pp. 9, 11.
131. First Report of the Shell Fish Commission of Maryland (Baltimore: Sun Job Printing Office, 1907), p. 181. Repeated in Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), p. 17.
132. First Report of the Shell Fish Commission of Maryland (Baltimore: Sun Job Printing Office, 1907), p. 181. Repeated in Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), p. 17.
133. Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 160-161.
134. Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), p. 13.
135. John K. Cowen, letter to the editor, Baltimore Sun, February 4, 1889, p. 1. Reprinted in booklet form as The Maryland Oyster and His Political Enemies (Baltimore: Boyle, 1889).
136. John K. Cowen, letter to the editor, Baltimore Sun, February 4, 1889, p. 1. Reprinted in booklet form as The Maryland Oyster and His Political Enemies (Baltimore: Boyle, 1889).
137. Keith R. Benson, "H. Newell Martin, W. K. Brooks, and the Reformation of American Biology," Amer. Zool., 27 (1987), 759-771; Maienschein, Transforming Traditions (above, n. 16), pp. 49-54.
138. Keith R. Benson, "H. Newell Martin, W. K. Brooks, and the Reformation of American Biology," Amer. Zool., 27 (1987), 759-771; Maienschein, Transforming Traditions (above, n. 16), pp. 49-54.
139. Benson, "Brooks" (above, n. 16), p. 99.
140. Ibid., p. 127.
141. Originally published as G. Bouchon-Brandeley, "Report Relative to the Generation and Artificial Fecundation of Oysters, Addressed to the Minister of the Marine and the Colonies," J. Officiel de la Republique Francaise (1882), 6762-6764, 6778-6782.
142. J. A. Ryder, "Rearing Oysters from Artificially Impregnated Eggs," Science, 1 (February 23, 1883), 60-62.
143. J. A. Ryder, "Rearing Oysters from Artificially Fertilized Eggs at Stockton, MD," Science, 2 (October 5, 1883), 463-464; John A. Ryder, "A New System of Oyster-Culture," Science, 6 (November 27, 1885), 465-467; John A. Ryder, "The Rate of Growth of Oysters at Saint Jerome's Creek Station," Bull. U.S. Fish Comm., 5 (1885), 129-131. Despite his earlier misgivings, Ryder published his findings in a book form as An Exposition of the Principles of a Rational System of Oyster Culture: Together with an Account of a New and Practical Method of Obtaining Oyster Spat on a Scale of Commercial Importance (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1886).
144. J. A. Ryder, "Rearing Oysters from Artificially Fertilized Eggs at Stockton, MD," Science, 2 (October 5, 1883), 463-464; John A. Ryder, "A New System of Oyster-Culture," Science, 6 (November 27, 1885), 465-467; John A. Ryder, "The Rate of Growth of Oysters at Saint Jerome's Creek Station," Bull. U.S. Fish Comm., 5 (1885), 129-131. Despite his earlier misgivings, Ryder published his findings in a book form as An Exposition of the Principles of a Rational System of Oyster Culture: Together with an Account of a New and Practical Method of Obtaining Oyster Spat on a Scale of Commercial Importance (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1886).
145. J. A. Ryder, "Rearing Oysters from Artificially Fertilized Eggs at Stockton, MD," Science, 2 (October 5, 1883), 463-464; John A. Ryder, "A New System of Oyster-Culture," Science, 6 (November 27, 1885), 465-467; John A. Ryder, "The Rate of Growth of Oysters at Saint Jerome's Creek Station," Bull. U.S. Fish Comm., 5 (1885), 129-131. Despite his earlier misgivings, Ryder published his findings in a book form as An Exposition of the Principles of a Rational System of Oyster Culture: Together with an Account of a New and Practical Method of Obtaining Oyster Spat on a Scale of Commercial Importance (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1886).
146. J. A. Ryder, "Rearing Oysters from Artificially Fertilized Eggs at
147. Quoted in Brooks, Report of the Oyster Commission (above, n. 28), pp. 126-127.
148. Ibid., p. 168.
149. Letter from William Keith Brooks to Daniel Coit Gilman, 30 August 1885. M.S. 1, Series 1 Correspondence, Special Collections, Milton S. Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University.
150. W. K. Brooks, "Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory" (above, n. 17), p. 93. Interestingly, an article in Science the previous year on "national traits in science" had asserted that "most scientific men harbor a little distrust of French work." See Science, 2 (October 5, 1883), 455-457.
151. Letter from William Keith Brooks to Daniel Coit Gilman, 30 August 1885. M.S. 1, Series 1 Correspondence, Special Collection, Milton S. Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University.
152. W. K. Brooks, "On the Artificial Propagation and Cultivation of Oysters in Floats," John Hopkins Univ. Circ., 5 (October 1885), 10. Reprinted in Science, 6 (November 13, 1885), 437-438.
153. In 1890, General Bradley T. Johnson proposed that the state give 10,000 acres to Hopkins for oyster culture, with the profits earmarked for education. "The Johns Hopkins University is the great factor in the future social and political condition of this State. It alone can save our posterity from being dominated by the commercial morale, and it can hold up the high and noble ideals of honorable action and generous thoughts. It is the institution of Maryland which must in time exercise inconceivable influence on the lives, the social system and the political organization of this State." See "The Oyster Question," Baltimore Sun, November 24, 1890.
154. Cowen, letter to the editor (above, n. 83).
155. Ibid.
156. Ibid.
157. He also wrote articles promoting cultivation of movable fishes. See W. K. Brooks, "Artificial Propagation of Sea Fishes," Pop. Sci. Monthly (1889), 359-367; W. K. Brooks, "Fish and Fisheries," Maryland: Its Resources, Industries and Institutions. Prepared for the Board of World's Fair Managers of Maryland by Members of Johns Hopkins University and Others (Baltimore: Sun Job Printing Office, 1893), 239-263.
158. He also wrote articles promoting cultivation of movable fishes. See W. K. Brooks, "Artificial Propagation of Sea Fishes," Pop. Sci. Monthly (1889), 359-367; W. K. Brooks, "Fish and Fisheries," Maryland: Its Resources, Industries and Institutions. Prepared for the Board of World's Fair Managers of Maryland by Members of Johns Hopkins University and Others (Baltimore: Sun Job Printing Office, 1893), 239-263.
159. "Going to North Carolina, "altimore American, January 13, 1891; "Dredgers Feeling Blue," Baltimore American, January 8, 1891.
160. "Facts about the Oyster," Baltimore American, January 26, 1891; Martin, "The Oyster Question" (above, n. 40), pp. 169-170.
161. "Save the Oyster Beds," Baltimore American, March 19, 1891. See also "Is It Reform or Ruin," Baltimore American, January 9, 1891; W. K. Brooks, "Oyster Farming Needed," Baltimore American, January 13, 1891; "Captain Thompson's Views," Baltimore American, January 21, 1891.
162. "Save the Oyster Beds," Baltimore American, March 19, 1891.
163. T. P. E., "An Oysterman's Views," letter to the editor, Baltimore American, December 23, 1890.
164. MacDonald succeeded G. Brown Goode as commissioner in 1888, and served until 1895.
165. "Save the Oyster Beds," Baltimore American, March 19, 1891.
166. "Profits of Oyster-Planting," Baltimore Sun, July 31, 1886; "Long Island Oyster Beds," Baltimore Sun, August 2, 1886; "Inspecting Oyster Beds," Baltimore Sun, August 3, 1886; "Eastern Oyster Beds," Baltimore American, August 3, 1886; "Long Island Oysters," Baltimore American, August 4, 1886; "Steam Oyster Dredgers," August 5, 1886; "Fighting Star-Fish," Baltimore American, August 6, 1886. See also Thomas S. Hodson, "Private Oyster Beds: Cultivation Needed in Maryland," Baltimore American, August 14, 1886; Thomas S. Hodson, "Connecticut's Laws," Baltimore American, February 2, 1891.
167. "Save the Oyster Beds," Baltimore American, March 19, 1891. For a specific account of a poaching raid against a Virginia oyster planter, see "Pirates on His Farms," Baltimore American, January 21, 1891.
168. "Save the Oyster Beds," Baltimore American, March 19, 1891.
169. "Maryland Oysters," Baltimore Sun, May 1, 1891.
170. Ibid.
171. Ibid.
172. Ibid.
173. Ibid.
174. Ibid.
175. Ibid.
176. Ibid.
177. Ibid.
178. George H. Wrightson, Chairman; George R. Gaither, Jr.; and F. H. Deane, The Oyster Question: "The Common Heritage of All." Address of the Nationalist Club of Baltimore City to the People of Maryland (Baltimore: n.p., 1891). Special Collections, Milton S. Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University.
179. Ibid., p. 2.
180. Ibid., p. 3.
181. Ibid., p. 4.
182. Ibid., p. 11.
183. Ibid., pp. 5, 11, 10, respectively.
184. Ibid., p. 11.
185. Daniel C. Gilman, introduction, The Oyster (above, n. 29), p. xxxvi.
186. Brooks, The Oyster (above, n. 29), p. 154.
187. Ibid., p. 14.
188. For works by American historians on professionalism and professionalization as significant social forces in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see for example, Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Barton Bledstein, The Culture of Professionalism: The Middle Class and the Development of Higher Education in America (New York: Norton, 1976); Thomas Haskell, The Emergence of Professional Social Science: The American Social Science Association an the Nineteenth-Century Crisis of Authority (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1977); Mary O. Furner, Advocacy and Objectivity: A Crisis in the Professionalization of American Social Sciences, 1865-1905 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1975).
189. For works by American historians on professionalism and professionalization as significant social forces in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see for example, Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Barton Bledstein, The Culture of Professionalism: The Middle Class and the Development of Higher Education in America (New York: Norton, 1976); Thomas Haskell, The Emergence of Professional Social Science: The American Social Science Association an the Nineteenth-Century Crisis of Authority (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1977); Mary O. Furner, Advocacy and Objectivity: A Crisis in the Professionalization of American Social Sciences, 1865-1905 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1975).
190. For works by American historians on professionalism and professionalization as significant social forces in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see for example, Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Barton Bledstein, The Culture of Professionalism: The Middle Class and the Development of Higher Education in America (New York: Norton, 1976); Thomas Haskell, The Emergence of Professional Social Science: The American Social Science Association an the Nineteenth-Century Crisis of Authority (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1977); Mary O. Furner, Advocacy and Objectivity: A Crisis in the Professionalization of American Social Sciences, 1865-1905 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1975).
191. For works by American historians on professionalism and professionalization as significant social forces in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see for example, Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Barton Bledstein, The Culture of Professionalism: The Middle Class and the Development of Higher Education in America (New York: Norton, 1976); Thomas Haskell, The Emergence of Professional Social Science: The American Social Science Association an the Nineteenth-Century Crisis of Authority (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1977); Mary O. Furner, Advocacy and Objectivity: A Crisis in the Professionalization of American Social Sciences, 1865-1905 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1975).
192. W. K. Brooks and H. McE. Knower, "The Oyster and the Oyster Industry," Maryland: Its Resources, Industries and Institutions. Prepared for the Board of World's Fair Managers of Maryland by Members of Johns Hopkins University and Others (Baltimore: Sun Job Printing Office, 1893), 264-312, p. 312.
193. Ibid., p. 308.
194. Brooks, Report of the Oyster Commission (above, n. 28), pp. 10-11.
195. Quoted in a Robert de Gast, The Oystermen of the Chesapeake (Camden, Me.: International Marine Publishing, 1970), unpaginated.
196. For an analysis of how experiment station scientists attempted to professionalize their rural clients, see David B. Danborn, "The Agricultural Experiment Station and Professionalization: Scientists' Goals for Agriculture," Agric. Hist., 60 (1986), 246-255.
197. Brooks, The Oyster (above, n. 29), p. 173.
198. Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), p. 154.
199. Arthur F. McEvoy, "Science, Culture, and Politics in U.S. Natural Resources Management," J. Hist. Biol., 25 (1992), 469-486, p. 485. For his case study of the relationship between user-group sociology, resource ecology, and fisheries management, see Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and the Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
200. Arthur F. McEvoy, "Science, Culture, and Politics in U.S. Natural Resources Management," J. Hist. Biol., 25 (1992), 469-486, p. 485. For his case study of the relationship between user-group sociology, resource ecology, and fisheries management, see Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and the Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
201. On the failure of contemporary scientists to address the social processes mediating lay experience of scientific knowledge claims, see Misunderstanding Science? ed. Irwin and Wynne (above, n. 9).
202. "An Economic Question of Importance," Baltimore Sun, February 18, 1893; "The Oyster and the Politician," Baltimore Sun, June 17, 1905; Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 161-162.
203. "An Economic Question of Importance," Baltimore Sun, February 18, 1893; "The Oyster and the Politician," Baltimore Sun, June 17, 1905; Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 161-162.
204. "An Economic Question of Importance," Baltimore Sun, February 18, 1893; "The Oyster and the Politician," Baltimore Sun, June 17, 1905; Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 161-162.
205. "Good Roads and Oyster Planting," Baltimore Sun, July 31, 1903.
206. John J. Alford, "The Chesapeake Oyster Fishery," Ann. Assn. Amer. Geog., 65 (1975), 229-239, p. 235; J. L. McHugh and Robert S. Bailey, "History of Virginia's Commercial Fisheries," Va. J. Sci. (1957), 42-64.
207. John J. Alford, "The Chesapeake Oyster Fishery," Ann. Assn. Amer. Geog., 65 (1975), 229-239, p. 235; J. L. McHugh and Robert S. Bailey, "History of Virginia's Commercial Fisheries," Va. J. Sci. (1957), 42-64.
208. Dexter Haven, "Virginia Seed Sources," in Oyster Culture in Maryland '79: A Conference Proceedings, ed. Donald Webster (Annapolis: University of Maryland Cooperative Extension Service, 1979), p. 25.
209. Kellogg, Shell-Fish Industries (above, n. 3), p. 216.
210. The second edition contained an extra section addressing public health concerns about shellfish contamination and the oyster's "peculiar fitness" for concentrating cholera and typhoid microbes.
211. "The Oyster," New York Times, December 9, 1905.
212. Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 88.
213. Benson, "Brooks" (above, n. 16), p. 104.
214. Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), pp. 162-163.
215. Ibid.: Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 89; Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), pp. 14-18.
216. Ibid.: Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 89; Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), pp. 14-18.
217. Ibid.: Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 89; Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), pp. 14-18.
218. Conklin, "Brooks" (above, n. 19), p. 60; Andrews, "Brooks" (above, n. 18), p. 779.
219. Conklin, "Brooks" (above, n. 19), p. 60; Andrews, "Brooks" (above, n. 18), p. 779.
220. Kellogg, Shell-Fish Industries (above, n. 3), pp. 227-228.
221. Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), pp. 5, 15.
222. Ibid., p. 16.
223. The Coast and Geodetic Survey established the surveying foundation of triangulation, hydrography, and topography. The Bureau of Fisheries (the former U.S. Fish Commission) advised on biological and economic matters. As the administrator of federal pure-food laws, the Bureau of Chemistry addressed fears of typhoid contamination by conducting a "sanitary survey." The state Shell Fish Commission coordinated the hydrographic operations, surveyed the leased oyster lots, and handled administrative matters pertaining to Maryland. Charles Yates, Survey of Oyster Bars of Maryland, 1906-1912 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913), p. 10.
224. Yates, Survey of Oyster Bars of Maryland (above, n. 155), p. 10.
225. Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 89; Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), p. 30.
226. Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 89; Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), p. 30.
227. Yates Survey and Oyster Bars (above, n. 155), p. 12; Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 89; Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), p. 15.
228. Yates Survey and Oyster Bars (above, n. 155), p. 12; Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 89; Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), p. 15.
229. Yates Survey and Oyster Bars (above, n. 155), p. 12; Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 89; Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), p. 15.
230. Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), p. 75.
231. Power, "More about Oysters" (above, n. 62), p. 214.
232. "Oyster Culture's Call Comes Clear and Loud," Baltimore Sun, March 10, 1914.
233. Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2), pp. 89-90.
234. Power, "More about Oysters" (above, n. 62), p. 214.
235. Ibid.; Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 93.
236. Ibid.; Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2), p. 93.
237. Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), p. 165.
238. R. V. Truitt, "Recent Oyster Researches on Chesapeake Bay in Maryland," Chesapeake Biological Laboratory Publication, No. 3 (1931), 1-28, p. 1.
239. Ibid., p. 20.
240. Ibid., p. 4.
241. Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), p. 166; G. W. Wharton, Proceedings of an Oyster Conference, 7 January 1959 (College Park: University of Maryland Press, 1959).
242. Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), p. 166; G. W. Wharton, Proceedings of an Oyster Conference, 7 January 1959 (College Park: University of Maryland Press, 1959).
243. Maryland was the second top-producing oyster state of the two coasts. The top producer, Louisiana, produced 2,635,028 bushels, of which 35.3 percent (928,864 bushels) was taken from private beds. In New Jersey 2,149,783 bushels, or 96.9 percent of the total catch, was taken from private beds; in New York, 1,271,527 bushels, or 96.8 percent; and in Virginia, 1,556,421 bushels, or 65 percent came from private beds. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, close to 100 percent of the total catch came from private beds, but together they produced only 774,347 bushels. W. L. Fairbanks, The Fisheries of Maryland (Baltimore: Maryland Development Bureau of the Baltimore Association of Commerce, 1932), pp. 106-107, 112.
244. Ibid., p. 107.
245. Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (New York: Island Press, 1994), p. 26.
246. Power, "More about Oysters" (above, n. 62), p. 214.
247. Christy, "Exploitation of a Common Property Natural Resource" (above, n. 2), pp. 35, 83.
248. Kennedy and Breisch (above, n. 14), p. 154; Isaiah Bowman, "Science and Social Effects: Three Failures," Sci. Monthly (1940), 289-298. The other two examples he used were "the hitherto unresolved problems of peacemaking" and the destruction of the tropical soils.
249. Bowman, "Science and Social Effects" (above, n. 175), pp. 292-293.
250. Alford, "Chesapeake Oyster Fishery" (above, n. 142), p. 233; Charles H. Stevenson, "The Oyster Industry of Maryland," Bull. U.S. Fish Comm., XII (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1894), p. 206.
251. Alford, "Chesapeake Oyster Fishery" (above, n. 142), p. 233; Charles H. Stevenson, "The Oyster Industry of Maryland," Bull. U.S. Fish Comm., XII (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1894), p. 206.
252. Alford, "Chesapeake Oyster Fishery" (above, n. 142), p. 233.
253. Kellogg, Shell-Fish Industries (above, n. 3), p. 228.
254. The phrase is from Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1976).
255. Grave, Manual (above, n. 31), p. 6.
256. Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), p. 169; Power, "More about Oysters" (above, n. 62), pp. 199-225; Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons" (above, n. 62).
257. Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), p. 169; Power, "More about Oysters" (above, n. 62), pp. 199-225; Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons" (above, n. 62).
258. Kennedy and Breisch, "Sixteen Decades" (above, n. 14), p. 169; Power, "More about Oysters" (above, n. 62), pp. 199-225; Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons" (above, n. 62).