Postcolonialism: A valid paradigm for the former Sovietized states and Yugoslavia?

East European Politics and Societies

Volumn 18, Issue 2, 2004, Pages

  Carey, Henry F ^a   Raciborski, Rafal ^b  

^a GEORGIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b EMORY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Democratization; Human rights; Post communism; Postcolonialism

Indexed keywords

EID: 2442530966     PISSN: 08883254     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0888325403259918     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. Thomas Carothers, "The End of the Transitions Paradigm," Journal of Democracy 13 (January 2002); 5-21.
2. The classic is Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review, 53 (March 1959): 69-105. For a similar structural approach to human rights protection, see Steven C. Poe and C. Neal Tate, "Repression of Human Rights to Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis," American Political Science Review 88 (December 1994): 853-72.
3. The classic is Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review, 53 (March 1959): 69-105. For a similar structural approach to human rights protection, see Steven C. Poe and C. Neal Tate, "Repression of Human Rights to Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis," American Political Science Review 88 (December 1994): 853-72.
4. The exemplar is Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
5. Viz., Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).
6. See, for example, the critique of Gabriel A. Almond, A Discipline Divided: Schools and Sects in Political Science (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990).
7. The classical postcolonial states are defined here as the fifty-two African, sixteen Asian, and fifteen Caribbean states that became independent after World War II. To some extent, this is an arbitrary definition. First, there were colonies that were liberated after World War I and before. Second, the status of territories within or adjacent to empires might be seen as similar to or even equivalent to colonies. This would apply especially to some or all of the post-Soviet states, which became independent in 1991.
8. For a qualitative comparison of the entire world, see the U.S. State Department's "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices," http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2003/, with sections on the integrity of persons, including the rule of law, the political right to change government, civil liberties, and freedom of nongovernmental organizations to investigate human rights violations, antidiscrimination rights, and worker rights.
9. Adrian Karatnycky, "Nations in Transit: Emerging Dynamics of Change," (New York: Freedom House, 2002), 13-35. See especially Table C, Trends in Reform, Nations in Transit Scores from 1997 to 2001." Retrieved from http://www.freedomhouse.org/pdf_docs/research/nitransit/2001/02_nations. pdf. Note that the unit is the country and has no bearing on population. Freedom House has the longest track record in rating countries (and which is much improved since the two decades when one person evaluated the whole world by himself). However, in a 22 April 2003 conversation with Jennifer Windsor, executive director of Freedom House, Carey suggested that the "Freedom in the World" survey no longer suffered from the bias during the cold war, inflating ratings for Central American allies and deflating them for Nicaragua. The current ratings are biased in favor of East Central Europe and the Balkans compared with Latin America today. She agreed that there may be regional biases because scholars of Latin America, who do the ratings for that region, are more critical than those of Eastern Europe, who do the ratings for the latter region. Scholars of Eastern Europe emphasize the distance traveled from communism and regard geopolitical forces as more responsible for the region's problems than its leaders and policies.
10. Adrian Karatnycky, "Nations in Transit: Emerging Dynamics of Change," (New York: Freedom House, 2002), 13-35. See especially Table C, Trends in Reform, Nations in Transit Scores from 1997 to 2001." Retrieved from http://www.freedomhouse.org/pdf_docs/research/nitransit/2001/02_nations. pdf. Note that the unit is the country and has no bearing on population. Freedom House has the longest track record in rating countries (and which is much improved since the two decades when one person evaluated the whole world by himself). However, in a 22 April 2003 conversation with Jennifer Windsor, executive director of Freedom House, Carey suggested that the "Freedom in the World" survey no longer suffered from the bias during the cold war, inflating ratings for Central American allies and deflating them for Nicaragua. The current ratings are biased in favor of East Central Europe and the Balkans compared with Latin America today. She agreed that there may be regional biases because scholars of Latin America, who do the ratings for that region, are more critical than those of Eastern Europe, who do the ratings for the latter region. Scholars of Eastern Europe emphasize the distance traveled from communism and regard geopolitical forces as more responsible for the region's problems than its leaders and policies.
11. On the persistence of semidemocracies and the use of electoral democracy to maintain authoritarian rule, see the symposium "Elections without Democracy, "Journal of Democracy 13 (April 2002): 21-80, with contributions from Larry Diamond, "Thinking about Hybrid Regimes," Andreas Schedler, "The Menu of Manipulation," Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way, "The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism," and Nicolas van de Walle, "Africa's Range of Regimes."
12. On the persistence of semidemocracies and the use of electoral democracy to maintain authoritarian rule, see the symposium "Elections without Democracy, "Journal of Democracy 13 (April 2002): 21-80, with contributions from Larry Diamond, "Thinking about Hybrid Regimes," Andreas Schedler, "The Menu of Manipulation," Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way, "The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism," and Nicolas van de Walle, "Africa's Range of Regimes."
13. On the persistence of semidemocracies and the use of electoral democracy to maintain authoritarian rule, see the symposium "Elections without Democracy, "Journal of Democracy 13 (April 2002): 21-80, with contributions from Larry Diamond, "Thinking about Hybrid Regimes," Andreas Schedler, "The Menu of Manipulation," Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way, "The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism," and Nicolas van de Walle, "Africa's Range of Regimes."
14. On the persistence of semidemocracies and the use of electoral democracy to maintain authoritarian rule, see the symposium "Elections without Democracy, "Journal of Democracy 13 (April 2002): 21-80, with contributions from Larry Diamond, "Thinking about Hybrid Regimes," Andreas Schedler, "The Menu of Manipulation," Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way, "The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism," and Nicolas van de Walle, "Africa's Range of Regimes."
15. On the persistence of semidemocracies and the use of electoral democracy to maintain authoritarian rule, see the symposium "Elections without Democracy, "Journal of Democracy 13 (April 2002): 21-80, with contributions from Larry Diamond, "Thinking about Hybrid Regimes," Andreas Schedler, "The Menu of Manipulation," Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way, "The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism," and Nicolas van de Walle, "Africa's Range of Regimes."
16. Alexander J. Motyl, "Ten Years after the Soviet Collapse: Persistence of the Past and Prospects for the Future," in Nation in Transit (New York: Freedom House, 2002), 36-44, retrieved from http://www.freedomhouse. org/pdf_docs/research/nitransit/2001/04_ten_years.pdf.
17. Valerie Bunce, "Rethinking Recent Democratization: Lessons from the Postcommunist Experience," World Politics, 55:2 (January 2003), 167-92. One problem is that she uses a very narrow definition of democracy, where Moldova, Ukraine, and Russia are termed democracies and where transitions end after only one free election. Even the previously narrow definitions of democracy by Mueller (free petition of government) and Huntingdon (two electoral turnover test) are more rigorous, Moldova, Ukraine and Russia are not democracies because of the systematic electoral fraud that has characterized many of their votes and because no institutionalization of credible electoral administration has been established. Their lack of the rule of law, violating the more rigorous criterion of some democratic theorists, would render them authoritarian.
18. Motyl, "Ten Years," 39.
19. Ibid., 40.
20. Gita Itonwana Welch, "Mozambique: Pluralism, Colonialism and the Law," in Neelan Tiruchelam and Radhika Coomaraswamy, eds., The Role of the Judiciary in Plural Societies (New York: St. Martin's, 1987), 157.
21. Florence Elliott and Michael Summerskill, A Dictionary of Politics (Hammondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1957), 67.
22. Jürgen Osterhammel, Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview (Princeton, NJ: Markus Weiner, 1997), 10.
23. Osterhammel, Colonialism, 4.
24. Osterhammel, Colonialism, 21-22.
25. To be sure, the distinction between colonial and noncolonial empires Is difficult. The United States since 1898 was a colonial empire, though Americans, because of their anticolonial founding myth, would never acknowledge what foreign critics of the United States always assert. One of the most famous realist theorists considers the westward, continental expansion of the U.S., as well as the conquest of Hawaii to constitute colonialism. See John J. Mersheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: Norton, 2003). Some would add that the United States is not a postcolony (of Great Britain) because the American Revolution of 1776 was a civil war among equals, not decolonization. According to Osterhammel, the Russian and Soviet empires were not imperial because they could not achieve worldwide economic and political control.
26. See Daran Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson, "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation," American Economic Review 91 (December 2001): 1-43. The argument is combined with geographical explanations to suggest that European colonists established democratic and capitalist institutions in which mortality from disease was low, and they established low-quality institutions in which rates of disease were high and long-term, colonial commitments to inhabit and develop territory were low. See William Easterly and Ross Levine, "Tropics, Germs and Crops: How Endowments Influence Economic Development," National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 9106.
27. See Daran Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson, "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation," American Economic Review 91 (December 2001): 1-43. The argument is combined with geographical explanations to suggest that European colonists established democratic and capitalist institutions in which mortality from disease was low, and they established low-quality institutions in which rates of disease were high and long-term, colonial commitments to inhabit and develop territory were low. See William Easterly and Ross Levine, "Tropics, Germs and Crops: How Endowments Influence Economic Development," National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 9106.
28. Adrian Karatnycky, "Muslim Countries and the Democracy Gap," Journal of Democracy 13: (January 2002); 102-3.
29. Herbert M. Kritzer, ed., Legal Systems of the World: A Political, Social, and Cultural Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio, 2002), 1050.
30. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2002 (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 31 March 2003), retrieved from http://www.state.gov/g/ drl/rls/hrrpt/2002/c8697.htm.
31. Osterhammel, Colonialism, 22.
32. The U.S. "empire," based mostly on contiguous territory, is half the size of the British Empire at its peak.
33. Alexandre Bennigsen, "Colonization and Decolonization in the Soviet Union," Journal of Contemporary History 4 (January 1969); 141-51.
34. A select bibliography on Russian and Soviet colonialism would include many articles from Nationalities Papers, the journal of the Association for the Study of Nationalities. See also Edward Allworth, ed., Ethnic Russia in the USSR: The Dilemma of Dominance (New York: Pergamon, 1980); Bennigsen, "Colonization and Decolonization"; Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds., Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); Ivan Dziuba, Internationalism or Russification? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem (New York: Monad, 1974); George Gretton, ed., Communism and Colonialism; Essays (New York, St. Martin's, 1964); Ihor Kamenetsky, ed., Nationalism and Human Rights: Processes of Modernization in the USSR (Littleton, CO: Association for the Study of Nationalities/Libraries Unlimited, 1977); W. W. Kulski, "Soviet Colonialism and Anti-colonialism," Russian Review 18 (April 1959): 113-25; James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press/Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute and the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1983); Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, "Old Russia, the Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe," American Slavic and East European Review 11 (October 1952): 171-88; Robert Strayer, "Decolonization, Democratization and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective" Journal of World History 12: (Fall 2001); Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and Russification on the Western Frontier, 1863-1914 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996).
35. A select bibliography on Russian and Soviet colonialism would include many articles from Nationalities Papers, the journal of the Association for the Study of Nationalities. See also Edward Allworth, ed., Ethnic Russia in the USSR: The Dilemma of Dominance (New York: Pergamon, 1980); Bennigsen, "Colonization and Decolonization"; Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds., Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); Ivan Dziuba, Internationalism or Russification? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem (New York: Monad, 1974); George Gretton, ed., Communism and Colonialism; Essays (New York, St. Martin's, 1964); Ihor Kamenetsky, ed., Nationalism and Human Rights: Processes of Modernization in the USSR (Littleton, CO: Association for the Study of Nationalities/Libraries Unlimited, 1977); W. W. Kulski, "Soviet Colonialism and Anti-colonialism," Russian Review 18 (April 1959): 113-25; James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press/Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute and the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1983); Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, "Old Russia, the Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe," American Slavic and East European Review 11 (October 1952): 171-88; Robert Strayer, "Decolonization, Democratization and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective" Journal of World History 12: (Fall 2001); Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and Russification on the Western Frontier, 1863-1914 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996).
36. A select bibliography on Russian and Soviet colonialism would include many articles from Nationalities Papers, the journal of the Association for the Study of Nationalities. See also Edward Allworth, ed., Ethnic Russia in the USSR: The Dilemma of Dominance (New York: Pergamon, 1980); Bennigsen, "Colonization and Decolonization"; Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds., Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); Ivan Dziuba, Internationalism or Russification? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem (New York: Monad, 1974); George Gretton, ed., Communism and Colonialism; Essays (New York, St. Martin's, 1964); Ihor Kamenetsky, ed., Nationalism and Human Rights: Processes of Modernization in the USSR (Littleton, CO: Association for the Study of Nationalities/Libraries Unlimited, 1977); W. W. Kulski, "Soviet Colonialism and Anti-colonialism," Russian Review 18 (April 1959): 113-25; James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press/Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute and the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1983); Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, "Old Russia, the Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe," American Slavic and East European Review 11 (October 1952): 171-88; Robert Strayer, "Decolonization, Democratization and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective" Journal of World History 12: (Fall 2001); Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and Russification on the Western Frontier, 1863-1914 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996).
37. A select bibliography on Russian and Soviet colonialism would include many articles from Nationalities Papers, the journal of the Association for the Study of Nationalities. See also Edward Allworth, ed., Ethnic Russia in the USSR: The Dilemma of Dominance (New York: Pergamon, 1980); Bennigsen, "Colonization and Decolonization"; Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds., Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); Ivan Dziuba, Internationalism or Russification? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem (New York: Monad, 1974); George Gretton, ed., Communism and Colonialism; Essays (New York, St. Martin's, 1964); Ihor Kamenetsky, ed., Nationalism and Human Rights: Processes of Modernization in the USSR (Littleton, CO: Association for the Study of Nationalities/Libraries Unlimited, 1977); W. W. Kulski, "Soviet Colonialism and Anti-colonialism," Russian Review 18 (April 1959): 113-25; James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press/Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute and the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1983); Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, "Old Russia, the Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe," American Slavic and East European Review 11 (October 1952): 171-88; Robert Strayer, "Decolonization, Democratization and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective" Journal of World History 12: (Fall 2001); Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and Russification on the Western Frontier, 1863-1914 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996).
38. A select bibliography on Russian and Soviet colonialism would include many articles from Nationalities Papers, the journal of the Association for the Study of Nationalities. See also Edward Allworth, ed., Ethnic Russia in the USSR: The Dilemma of Dominance (New York: Pergamon, 1980); Bennigsen, "Colonization and Decolonization"; Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds., Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); Ivan Dziuba, Internationalism or Russification? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem (New York: Monad, 1974); George Gretton, ed., Communism and Colonialism; Essays (New York, St. Martin's, 1964); Ihor Kamenetsky, ed., Nationalism and Human Rights: Processes of Modernization in the USSR (Littleton, CO: Association for the Study of Nationalities/Libraries Unlimited, 1977); W. W. Kulski, "Soviet Colonialism and Anti-colonialism," Russian Review 18 (April 1959): 113-25; James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press/Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute and the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1983); Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, "Old Russia, the Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe," American Slavic and East European Review 11 (October 1952): 171-88; Robert Strayer, "Decolonization, Democratization and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective" Journal of World History 12: (Fall 2001); Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and Russification on the Western Frontier, 1863-1914 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996).
39. A select bibliography on Russian and Soviet colonialism would include many articles from Nationalities Papers, the journal of the Association for the Study of Nationalities. See also Edward Allworth, ed., Ethnic Russia in the USSR: The Dilemma of Dominance (New York: Pergamon, 1980); Bennigsen, "Colonization and Decolonization"; Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds., Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); Ivan Dziuba, Internationalism or Russification? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem (New York: Monad, 1974); George Gretton, ed., Communism and Colonialism; Essays (New York, St. Martin's, 1964); Ihor Kamenetsky, ed., Nationalism and Human Rights: Processes of Modernization in the USSR (Littleton, CO: Association for the Study of Nationalities/Libraries Unlimited, 1977); W. W. Kulski, "Soviet Colonialism and Anti-colonialism," Russian Review 18 (April 1959): 113-25; James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press/Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute and the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1983); Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, "Old Russia, the Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe," American Slavic and East European Review 11 (October 1952): 171-88; Robert Strayer, "Decolonization, Democratization and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective" Journal of World History 12: (Fall 2001); Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and Russification on the Western Frontier, 1863-1914 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996).
40. A select bibliography on Russian and Soviet colonialism would include many articles from Nationalities Papers, the journal of the Association for the Study of Nationalities. See also Edward Allworth, ed., Ethnic Russia in the USSR: The Dilemma of Dominance (New York: Pergamon, 1980); Bennigsen, "Colonization and Decolonization"; Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds., Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); Ivan Dziuba, Internationalism or Russification? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem (New York: Monad, 1974); George Gretton, ed., Communism and Colonialism; Essays (New York, St. Martin's, 1964); Ihor Kamenetsky, ed., Nationalism and Human Rights: Processes of Modernization in the USSR (Littleton, CO: Association for the Study of Nationalities/Libraries Unlimited, 1977); W. W. Kulski, "Soviet Colonialism and Anti-colonialism," Russian Review 18 (April 1959): 113-25; James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press/Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute and the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1983); Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, "Old Russia, the Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe," American Slavic and East European Review 11 (October 1952): 171-88; Robert Strayer, "Decolonization, Democratization and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective" Journal of World History 12: (Fall 2001); Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and Russification on the Western Frontier, 1863-1914 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996).
41. A select bibliography on Russian and Soviet colonialism would include many articles from Nationalities Papers, the journal of the Association for the Study of Nationalities. See also Edward Allworth, ed., Ethnic Russia in the USSR: The Dilemma of Dominance (New York: Pergamon, 1980); Bennigsen, "Colonization and Decolonization"; Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds., Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); Ivan Dziuba, Internationalism or Russification? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem (New York: Monad, 1974); George Gretton, ed., Communism and Colonialism; Essays (New York, St. Martin's, 1964); Ihor Kamenetsky, ed., Nationalism and Human Rights: Processes of Modernization in the USSR (Littleton, CO: Association for the Study of Nationalities/Libraries Unlimited, 1977); W. W. Kulski, "Soviet Colonialism and Anti-colonialism," Russian Review 18 (April 1959): 113-25; James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press/Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute and the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1983); Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, "Old Russia, the Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe," American Slavic and East European Review 11 (October 1952): 171-88; Robert Strayer, "Decolonization, Democratization and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective" Journal of World History 12: (Fall 2001); Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and Russification on the Western Frontier, 1863-1914 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996).
42. A select bibliography on Russian and Soviet colonialism would include many articles from Nationalities Papers, the journal of the Association for the Study of Nationalities. See also Edward Allworth, ed., Ethnic Russia in the USSR: The Dilemma of Dominance (New York: Pergamon, 1980); Bennigsen, "Colonization and Decolonization"; Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds., Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); Ivan Dziuba, Internationalism or Russification? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem (New York: Monad, 1974); George Gretton, ed., Communism and Colonialism; Essays (New York, St. Martin's, 1964); Ihor Kamenetsky, ed., Nationalism and Human Rights: Processes of Modernization in the USSR (Littleton, CO: Association for the Study of Nationalities/Libraries Unlimited, 1977); W. W. Kulski, "Soviet Colonialism and Anti-colonialism," Russian Review 18 (April 1959): 113-25; James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press/Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute and the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1983); Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, "Old Russia, the Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe," American Slavic and East European Review 11 (October 1952): 171-88; Robert Strayer, "Decolonization, Democratization and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective" Journal of World History 12: (Fall 2001); Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and Russification on the Western Frontier, 1863-1914 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996).
43. A select bibliography on Russian and Soviet colonialism would include many articles from Nationalities Papers, the journal of the Association for the Study of Nationalities. See also Edward Allworth, ed., Ethnic Russia in the USSR: The Dilemma of Dominance (New York: Pergamon, 1980); Bennigsen, "Colonization and Decolonization"; Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds., Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); Ivan Dziuba, Internationalism or Russification? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem (New York: Monad, 1974); George Gretton, ed., Communism and Colonialism; Essays (New York, St. Martin's, 1964); Ihor Kamenetsky, ed., Nationalism and Human Rights: Processes of Modernization in the USSR (Littleton, CO: Association for the Study of Nationalities/Libraries Unlimited, 1977); W. W. Kulski, "Soviet Colonialism and Anti-colonialism," Russian Review 18 (April 1959): 113-25; James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press/Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute and the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1983); Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, "Old Russia, the Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe," American Slavic and East European Review 11 (October 1952): 171-88; Robert Strayer, "Decolonization, Democratization and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective" Journal of World History 12: (Fall 2001); Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and Russification on the Western Frontier, 1863-1914 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996).
44. A select bibliography on Russian and Soviet colonialism would include many articles from Nationalities Papers, the journal of the Association for the Study of Nationalities. See also Edward Allworth, ed., Ethnic Russia in the USSR: The Dilemma of Dominance (New York: Pergamon, 1980); Bennigsen, "Colonization and Decolonization"; Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds., Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); Ivan Dziuba, Internationalism or Russification? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem (New York: Monad, 1974); George Gretton, ed., Communism and Colonialism; Essays (New York, St. Martin's, 1964); Ihor Kamenetsky, ed., Nationalism and Human Rights: Processes of Modernization in the USSR (Littleton, CO: Association for the Study of Nationalities/Libraries Unlimited, 1977); W. W. Kulski, "Soviet Colonialism and Anti-colonialism," Russian Review 18 (April 1959): 113-25; James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press/Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute and the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1983); Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, "Old Russia, the Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe," American Slavic and East European Review 11 (October 1952): 171-88; Robert Strayer, "Decolonization, Democratization and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective" Journal of World History 12: (Fall 2001); Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and Russification on the Western Frontier, 1863-1914 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996).
45. Bennigsen, "Colonization and Decolonization," 145.
46. Hugh Seton-Watson, "Nationalism and Imperialism," in The Impact of the Russian Revolution 1917-1967: The Influence of Bolshevism on the World Outside Russia (London; Oxford University Press, 1967), 158.
47. Geoffrey Hosking, "The Freudian Frontier," Times Literary Supplement, 10 March 1995, p. 27.
48. See the criticism in the characterization of the dissolution of the Federal Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia as a dissolution rather than extralegal secession by Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination: The Accommodation of Conflicting Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990), 497-98.
49. See the debates on how liberal the revolutions were in East Central Europe and the Balkans In Vladimir Tismaneanu, ed., The Revolutions of 1989 (New York: Routledge, 1999), especially the essays by Jeffrey Issac, Tony Judt, and S. N. Eisenstadt.
50. A short history of Soviet colonization and decolonization can be found In Muriel E. Chamberlain, Decolonisation: The Fall of the European Empires (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1999), 93-115, in which the three Soviet groups are characterized.
51. D. K. Fleldhouse, The Colonial Empires: A Comparative Survey from the Eigbteenth Century (New York: Delacorte, 1906), 339.
52. Andreas Kappeler, The Russian Empire: A Multiethnic History, trans. Alfred Clayton (Harlow, UK: Longman, 2001), 321.
53. Kappeler, Russian Empire, 321-22.
54. "On the eve of the 1917 Revolution, under the Czar, only 28,600 convicts were serving sentences of hard labor, compared with the millions committed to the gulag under Lenin and Stalin. At some point numbers matter; quantity becomes quality. It is simply wrong to maintain that the gulag was nothing more than a modernized version of czarist predecessor." Steven Meritt Miner, in reviewing Anne Applebaum's Gulag: A History (New York: Doubleday, 2003) in "The Other Killing Machine," New York Times Book Review, 11 May 2003), p. 11.
55. "On the eve of the 1917 Revolution, under the Czar, only 28,600 convicts were serving sentences of hard labor, compared with the millions committed to the gulag under Lenin and Stalin. At some point numbers matter; quantity becomes quality. It is simply wrong to maintain that the gulag was nothing more than a modernized version of czarist predecessor." Steven Meritt Miner, in reviewing Anne Applebaum's Gulag: A History (New York: Doubleday, 2003) in "The Other Killing Machine," New York Times Book Review, 11 May 2003), p. 11.
56. Merritt Miner, "The Other Killing Machine," 11.
57. Ariel Cohen, Russian Imperialism: Development and Crisis (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1996), 61.
58. Weiner uses the terms "postcolonial state" and "new state" interchangeably. Myron Weiner, "Political Change: Asia, Africa and the Middle East," in Myron Weiner and Samuel P. Huntington, eds., Understanding Political Development (Boston: Little, Brown, 1987), 54.
59. See book reviews of Niall Ferguson, Empire: the Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power (New York: Basic Books, 2003), reviewed in the New York Times Book Review, 27 April 2003, and National Review, 5 May 2003. Although an apologist for colonialism, Ferguson does not ignore its devastating effects.
60. See book reviews of Niall Ferguson, Empire: the Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power (New York: Basic Books, 2003), reviewed in the New York Times Book Review, 27 April 2003, and National Review, 5 May 2003. Although an apologist for colonialism, Ferguson does not ignore its devastating effects.
61. See book reviews of Niall Ferguson, Empire: the Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power (New York: Basic Books, 2003), reviewed in the New York Times Book Review, 27 April 2003, and National Review, 5 May 2003. Although an apologist for colonialism, Ferguson does not ignore its devastating effects.
62. L. Gray Cowan, The Dilemmas of African Independence (New York: Walker, 1964), 48.
63. For a theoretical analysis with global comparisons, see Henry F. Carey, "The Postcolonial State and the Protection of Human Rights," Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 22:1/2(2002): 59-75.
64. Kappeler, Russian Empire, 7
65. Gregory W. Gleason and Susan J. Buck, "Decolonization in the Former Soviet Borderlands: Politics in Search of Principles," PS: Political Science and Politics (September 1993): 522.
66. Based on Fieldhouse, Colonial Empires, 372-74, "Old" empires are empires created before 1815 (Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch, and British presence in the Americas, Africa, and the East); "modern" empires include the second expansion of Europe in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific; the Russian Empire; and the United States Empire.
67. The results shown in Table 5 were obtained by ordinary least squares regression. The model is very stable and the Breusch-Godfrey diagnostics did not reject the null of no autocorrelation. However, as we have cross-country data, we expect heteroscedasticity. Indeed, the White test rejected the assumption of homoscedasticity, so we employed robust standard errors to obtain efficient estimates. The reader may find a detailed description of variables in the appendix.
68. We developed several alternative indicators for judicial independence. We opted for a broader conceptualization, not limited to the highest courts but encompassing the whole court hierarchy. A narrow measure, furthermore limited to the potential independence of a constitutional tribunal, is offered by Smithey and Ishiyama. This measure was not statistically significant when used in our statistical model. See Shannon Ishiyama Smithey and John Ishiyama, "Judicial Choices: Designing Courts in Post-communist Politics," Communist and Post-communist Studies 33 (2000): 163-82.
69. Cohen, Russian Imperialism, 99-100.
70. Hélène Carrère d'Encausse, The Nationality Question in the Soviet Union and Russia (Oslo, Norway: Scandinavian University Press, 1995), 27.
71. Cohen, Russian Imperialism, 81.
72. Ibid., 85-86.
73. Carrère d'Encausse, Nationality Question, 26.
74. Cohen, Russian Imperialism, 97.
75. Emphasis in original. Carrère d'Encausse, Nationality Question, 22-23.
76. Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook, 2003. Retrieved from http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html.
77. George G. Grabowicz, "Ukrainian Studies: Framing the Contexts," Slavic Review 54:3(1995): 677-78.
78. Cohen, Russian Imperialism, 157.
79. Fieldhouse, Colonial Empires, 382-83.
80. Black and Helmreich, Twentieth Century Europe, 717-718.
81. Kappeler, Russian Empire, 322.
82. Cohen, Russian Imperialism, 84.
83. Ibid., 101.
84. Peter H. Solomon Jr., "Local Political Power and Soviet Criminal Justice, 1922-41," Slavic Studies 37 (July 1985): 324-325.
85. The large literature on legal reform can be explored in the pages of the East European Constitutional Review, which focuses on Eastern Europe and Russia.
86. Vrinda Narain, Gender and Community: Muslim Women's Rights in India (Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 2001); Rajeswari Sunder Rajan, The Scandal of the State: Women, Law and Citizenship in Postcolonial India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003).
87. Vrinda Narain, Gender and Community: Muslim Women's Rights in India (Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 2001); Rajeswari Sunder Rajan, The Scandal of the State: Women, Law and Citizenship in Postcolonial India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003).
88. Douglas Northruop, "Subaltern Dialogues: Subversion and Resistance in Soviet Uzbek Family Law," Slavic Review, 60:1(Spring 2001), 138-39.
89. George G. Grabowicz, "Ukrainian Studies: Framing the Contexts," 676.