An attachment perspective on grandparents raising their very young grandchildren: Implications for intervention and research

Infant Mental Health Journal

Volumn 24, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 149-173

  Poehlmann, Julie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CAREGIVER; CHILD; COGNITION; EMOTIONAL ATTACHMENT; FAMILY RELATION; GRANDCHILD; GRANDPARENT; HUMAN; LIFESPAN; MEDICAL RESEARCH; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

EID: 2442443374     PISSN: 01639641     EISSN: 10970355     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/imhj.10047     Document Type: Review

References (132)

1. Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44, 709-716.
2. Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1990). Some considerations regarding theory and assessment relevant to attachments beyond infancy. In M.T. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & E.M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years (pp. 463-488). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
3. Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M.C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
4. Ainsworth, M.D.S., & Bowlby, J. (1991). An ethological approach to personality development. American Psychologist, 46, 333-341.
5. Albus, K.E., & Dozier, M. (1999). Indiscriminate friendliness and terror of strangers in infancy: Contributions from the study of infants in foster care. Infant Mental Health Journal, 20, 30-41.
6. Bamett, D., Ganiban, J., & Cicchetti, D. (1999). Maltreatment, negative expressivity, and the development of Type D attachments from 12 to 24 months of age. In J.I. Vondra & D. Barnett (Eds.), Atypical attachment in infancy and early childhood among children at developmental risk. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64(258), 97-118.
7. Bates, J.E., Maslin, C.A., & Frankel, K.A. (1985). Attachment security, mother-child interaction, and temperament as predictors of behavior-problem ratings at age three years. In I. Bretherton & E. Waters (Eds.), Growing points of attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1-2), 167-193.
8. Baunach, P.J. (1985). Mothers in prison. New Brunswick: Transaction books.
9. Belsky, J. (1996). Parent, infant, and social-contextual determinants of attachment security. Developmental Psychology, 32, 905-914.
10. Belsky, J. (1997). Theory testing, effect-size evaluation, and differential susceptibility to rearing influence: The case of mothering and attachment. Child Development, 68, 598-601.
11. Belsky, J. (1999). Interactional and contextual determinants of attachment security. In J. Cassidy & P.R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 249-264). New York: Guilford.
12. Belsky, J., Rovine, M., & Taylor, D.O. (1984). The Pennsylvania Infant and Family Development Project: III. The origins of individual differences in infant-mother attachment: Maternal and infant contributions. Child Development, 55, 718-728.
13. Benedict, M.I., Zuravin, S., & Stallings, R.Y. (1996). Adult functioning of children who lived in kin versus nonrelative family foster homes. Child Welfare, 75, 529-549.
14. Bengtson, V.L. (2001). Beyond the nuclear family: The increasing importance of multigenerational bonds. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 1-16.
15. Benoit, D., & Parker, K.C. (1994). Stability and transmission of attachment across three generations. Child Development, 65, 1444-1456.
16. Bloom, B., & Steinhart, D. (1993). Why punish the children? A reappraisal of incarcerated mothers in America. San Francisco: Nathional Council on Crime and Delinquency.
17. Bohlin, G., Hagekull, B., & Rydell, A.M. (2000). Attachment and social functioning: A longitudinal study from infancy to middle childhood. Social Development, 9, 24-39.
18. Bowlby, J. (1969/1982). Attachment and loss: Volume 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
19. Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books.
20. Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Loss. New York: Basic Books.
21. Bowlby, J. (1988). Developmental psychiatry comes of age. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 1-10.
22. Bretherton, I. (1990). Communication patterns, internal working models and the intergenerational transmission of attachment relationships. Infant Mental Health Journal, 11, 237-252.
23. Bretherton, I. (1991). Pouring new wine into old bottles: The social self as internal working model. In M.R. Gunnar & L.A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self processes and development. Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology (vol. 23, pp. 1-41). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
24. Bretherton, I. (1993). From dialogue to internal working models: The co-construction of self in relationships. In C.A. Nelson (Ed.), Memory and affect in development. Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology (vol. 26, pp. 237-263). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
25. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22, 723-742.
26. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1992). Ecological systems theory. In Vasta, R. (Ed.), Six theories of child development: Revised formulations and current issues (pp. 187-249). Bristol, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
27. Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., & Brook, D.W. (1999). Transmission of risk factors across three generations. Psychological Reports, 85, 227-241.
28. Brooks, C.S., Zuckerman, B., Bamforth, A., Cole, J., & Kaplan-Sanoff, M. (1994). Clinical issues related to substance-involved mothers and their infants. Infant Mental Health Journal, 15, 202-217.
29. Brooks, D., & Barth, R.P. (1998). Characteristics and outcomes of drug-exposed and non drug-exposed children in kinship and non-relative foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 20, 475-501.
30. Bryson, K., & Casper, L.M. (1999). Coresident grandparents and grandchildren. Current population reports: Special studies. Census Bureau P23-198, U.S. Department of Commerce.
31. Bumette, D. (1999). Physical and emotional well-being of custodial grandparents in Latino families. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 69, 305-318.
32. Burton, L.M. (1992). Black grandparents rearing children of drug-addicted parents: Stressors, outcomes, and social service needs. The Gerontologist, 32, 744-751.
33. Burton, L.M., & DeVries, C. (1992). Challenges and rewards: African American grandparents as surrogate parents. Generations, 16, 51-54.
34. Chen, Z., & Kaplan, H.G. (2001). Intergenerational transmission of constructive parenting. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 17-31.
35. Chisholm, K., Carter, M.C., Ames, E.W., & Morison, S.J. (1995). Attachment security and indiscriminately friendly behavior in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 283-297.
36. Covington, S.S. (1998). Women in prison: Approaches in the treatment of our most invisible population. Women and Therapy, 21, 141-155.
37. Cowan, C.P., & Cowan, P.A. (1988). Who does what when partners become parents: Implications for men, women, and marriage. Marriage and Family Review, 12, 105-131.
38. Cowan, C.P., & Cowan, P.A. (1997). Working with couples during stressful transitions. In S. Dreman (Ed.), The family on the threshold of the 21st century: Trends and implications (pp. 12-47). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
39. Cox, M.J., Paley, B., Payne, C.C., & Burchinal, M. (1999). The transition to parenthood: Marital conflict and withdrawal and parent-infant interactions. In M.J. Cox & J. Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), Conflict and cohesion in families: Causes and consequences (pp. 87-104). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
40. Crittenden, P.M. (1996). Research on maltreating families: Implications for intervention. In J. Briere & L. Berliner (Eds.) The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (pp. 158-174). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
41. Crockenberg, S.B. (1981). Infant irritability, mother responsiveness, and social support influences on the security of infant-mother attachment. Child Development, 52, 857-865.
42. DeWolff, M., & van Uzendoorn, M.H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68, 571-591.
43. Dozier, M., Stovall, K.C., Albus, K.E., & Bates, B. (2001). Attachment for infants in foster care: The role of caregiver state of mind. Child Development, 72, 1467-1477.
44. Dressel, P.L., & Barnhill, S.K. (1994). Reframing gerontological thought and practice: The case of grandmothers with daughters in prison. The Gerontologist, 34, 685-691.
45. Dubowitz, H., & Sawyer, R.J. (1994). School behavior of children in kinship care. Child Abuse and Neglect, 18, 899-911.
46. Dubowitz, H., Zuravin, S., Starr, R.H., Feigelman, S., & Harrington, D. (1993). Behavior problems of children in kinship care. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 14, 386-393.
47. Egeland, B., Jacobvitz, D., & Sroufe, L.A. (1988). Breaking the cycle of abuse. Child Development, 59, 1080-1088.
48. Emick, M.A., & Hayslip, B. (1996). Custodial grandparenting: New roles for middle-aged and older adults. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 43, 135-154.
49. Emick, M.A., & Hayslip, B. (1999). Custodial grandparenting: Stresses, coping skills, and relationships with grandchildren. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 48, 35-61.
50. Enos, S. (1997). Managing motherhood in prison: The impact efface and ethnicity on child placements. Women and Therapy, 20, 57-73.
51. Espinosa, M., Beckwith, L., Howard, J., Tyler, R., & Swanson, K. (2001). Maternal psychopathology and attachment in toddlers of heavy cocaine-using mothers. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 316-333.
52. Farber, E.A., & Egeland, B. (1987). Invulnerability among abused and neglected children. In E.J. Anthony & B.J. Cohler (Eds.), The invulnerable child (pp. 253-288). New York: Guilford Press.
53. Fuller-Thompson, E., Minkler, M., & Driver, D. (1997). A profile of grandparents raising grandchildren. Gerontologist, 37, 406-411.
54. Gabel, K., & Johnston, D. (1995). Children of incarcerated parents. New York: Lexington Books.
55. García Coll, C., & Magnuson, K. (2000). Cultural differences as sources of developmental vulnerabilities and resources. In J.P. Shonkoff & SJ. Meisels (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (2nd ed., pp. 94-114). New York: Cambridge University Press.
56. García Coll, C., Miller, J.B., Fields, J.P., & Mathews, B. (1997). The experiences of women in prison: Implications for services and prevention. Women and Therapy, 20, 11-28.
57. García Coll, C., Surrey, J.L., Buccio-Notaro, P., & Molla, B. (1998). Incarcerated mothers: Crimes and punishments. In C.G. Coll, J.L. Surrey, & K. Weingarten (Eds.), Mothering against the odds: Diverse voices of contemporary mothers. New York: Guilford.
58. George, C., & Solomon, J. (1999). Attachment and caregiving: The caregiving behavioral system. In J. Cassidy & P.R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 649-670). New York: Guilford.
59. Greenberg, M.T. (1999). Attachment and psychopathology in childhood. In J. Cassidy & P.R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 469-496). New York: Guilford.
60. Greenfeld, L.A., & Snell, T.L. (1999). Special report: Women offenders. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.
61. Hairston, C.F. (1988). Family ties during imprisonment: Do they influence future criminal activity? Federal Probation, 52, 48-52.
62. Hairston, C.F. (1991). Family ties during imprisonment: Important to whom and for what? Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 18, 87-104.
63. Hayslip, B., Shore, R.J., Henderson, C.E., & Lambert, P.L. (1998). Custodial grandparenting and the impact of grandchildren with problems on role satisfaction and role meaning. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 53B, S164-S173.
64. Heflinger, C.A., Simpkins, G.G., & Combs-Orme, T. (2000). Using the CBCL to determine the clinical status of children in state custody. Children and Youth Services Review, 22, 55-73.
65. Heinicke, C.M. (1995). Determinants of the transition to parenting. In M.H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting, Vol. 3: Status and social conditions of parenting (pp. 277-303). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
66. Herrenkohl, F.C., Herrenkohl, R.C., & Egolf, B. (1994). Resilient early school-age children from maltreating homes: Outcomes in late adolescence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 64, 301-309.
67. Hill, R. (1949). Families under stress. New York: Harper.
68. Hirshom, B.A. (1998). Grandparents as caregivers. In M.E. Szinovacz (Ed.), Handbook on grandparenthood (pp. 200-214). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
69. Howe, D. (1995). Adoption and attachment. Adoption & Fostering, 19, 7-15.
70. Howes, C. (1999). Attachment relationships in the context of multiple caregivers. In J. Cassidy & P.R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 671-687). New York: Guilford.
71. Isabella, R., & Belsky, J., & von Eye, A. (1989). Origins of infant-mother attachment: An examination of interactional synchrony during the infant's first year. Developmental Psychology, 25, 12-21.
72. Jacobvitz, D., Morgan, E., Kretchmar, M., & Morgan, Y. (1991). Parenting across three generations: The development of maternal empathy. Paper presented at the biennial convention of the Society for Research in Child Development, Seattle.
73. Jendrek, M.P. (1993). Grandparents who parent their grandchildren: Effects on lifestyle. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55, 609-621.
74. King, V., & Elder, G.H. (1997). The legacy of grandparenting: Childhood experiences with grandparents and current involvement with grandchildren. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 59, 848-859.
75. Kobak, R. (1999). The emotional dynamics of disruptions in attachment relationships: Implications for theory, research, and clinical intervention. In J. Cassidy & P.R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 21-43). New York: Guilford.
76. Lewis, M., & Feiring, C. (1989). Infant, mother, and mother-infant interaction behavior and subsequent attachment. Child Development, 60, 831-837.
77. Lieberman, A.F., & Zeanah, C.H. (1999). Contributions of attachment theory to infant-parent psychotherapy and other interventions with infants and young children. In J. Cassidy & P.R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 555-574). New York: Guilford.
78. Main, M., & Goldwyn, R. (1984). Predicting rejection of her infant from mother's representation of her own experience: Implications for the abused-abusing intergenerational cycle. Child Abuse & Neglect, 8, 203-217.
79. Main, M., & Hesse, E. (1990). Parents' unresolved traumatic experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status: Is frightened and/or frightening parental behavior the linking mechanism? In M.T. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & E.M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years (pp. 161-182). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
80. Marcovitch, S., Goldberg, S., Gold, A., Washington, J., Wasson, C., Krekewich, K., & Handley-Derry, E. (1997). Determinants of behavioral problems in Romanian children adopted in Ontario. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20, 17-31.
81. Martin, S.L., Gotten, N.U., Browne, D.C., Kurz, B., & Robertson, E. (1995). Family violence and depressive symptomatology among incarcerated women. Journal of Family Violence, 10, 399-411.
82. Mayes, L.C. (1995). Substance abuse in parenting. In M. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (pp. 101-125). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
83. McAdoo, H.P. (1981). Upward mobility and parenting in middle-income black families. Journal of Black Psychology, 8, 122.
84. McCubbin, H. (1979). Integrating coping behavior in family stress theory. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41, 237-244.
85. McCubbin, H., & Patterson, J. (1982). Family adaptation to crises. In H.I. McCubbin (Ed.), Family stress, coping and social support (pp. 26-47). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
86. McDonald, K.B., & Armstrong, E.M. (2001). De-romanticizing Black intergenerational support: The questionable expectations of welfare reform. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 213-233.
87. McLean, B., & Thomas, R. (1996). Informal and formal kinship care populations: A study in contrasts. Child Welfare, 75, 489-505.
88. Milan, S.E., & Pinderhughes, E.E. (2000). Factors influencing maltreated children's early adjustment in foster care. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 63-81.
89. Minkler, M., Fuller-Thompson, E., Miller, D., & Driver, D. (1997). Depression in grandparents raising grandchildren: Results of a national longitudinal study. Archives of Family Medicine, 6, 445-452.
90. Minkler, M., & Roe, K.M. (1993). Grandmothers as caregivers. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
91. Minkler, M., & Roe, K.M. (1996). Grandparents as surrogate parents. Generations, 20, 34-38.
92. Minkler, M., Roe, K.M., & Price, M. (1992). The physical and emotional health of grandmothers raising grandchildren in the crack cocaine epidemic. The Gerontologist, 32, 752-761.
93. Morrow-Kondos, D., Weber, J.A., Cooper, K., & Kesser, J.L. (1997). Becoming parents again: Grand-parents raising grandchildren. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 28, 35-46.
94. Mumola, C.J. (2000). Special report: Incarcerated parents and their children. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
95. Myers, B.J., Jarvis, P.A., & Creasey, G.L. (1987). Infants' behavior with their mothers and grandmothers. Infant Behavior and Development, 10, 245-259.
96. National Maternal and Child Health Clearinghouse. (2000). America's children: 2000. Vienna, VA: National Maternal and Child Health Clearinghouse.
97. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (1997). The effects of infant child care on infant-mother attachment security: Results of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. Child Development, 68, 860-879.
98. Nisivoccia, D. (1996). Working with kinship foster families: Principles for practice. Community Alternatives: International Journal of Family Care, 8, 1-21.
99. Osofsky, J.D., & Thompson, M.D. (2000). Adaptive and maladaptive parenting: Perspectives on risk and protective factors. In J.P. Shonkoff & S.J. Meisels (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (2nd ed., pp. 54-75). New York: Cambridge University Press.
100. Phillips, S.D., & Harm, N.J. (1997). Women prisoners: A contextual framework. Women and Therapy, 20, 1-9.
101. Poehlmann, J. (2001). Predictors of grandmother participation in a multigenerational study. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 53, 285-301.
102. Poehlmann, J., & Fiese, B.H. (2001). The interaction of maternal and infant vulnerabilities on developing infant-mother attachment relationships. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 1-11.
103. Poehlmann, J., & Kinderman, R. (April, 2001). Disrupted relationships in children of incarcerated mothers. Presented at the biennial convention of the Society for Research in Child Development in Minneapolis, MN.
104. Pruchno, R. (1999). Raising grandchildren: The experiences of Back and White grandmothers. The Gerontologist, 39, 209-221.
105. Ricks, M.H. (1985). The social transmission of parental behavior: Attachment across generations. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1-2, Serial No. 209).
106. Rodning, C., Beckwith, L., & Howard, J. (1991). Quality of attachment and home environments in children prenatally exposed to PCP and cocaine. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 351-366.
107. Rosenfeld, A.A., Pilowsky, D.J., Fine, P., Thorpe, M., Fein, E., Simms, M.D., Halfen, N., Irwin, M., Alfaro, J., Saletsky, R., & Nickman, S. (1997). Foster care: An update. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 448-457.
108. Sameroff, A.J., & Fiese, B.H. (2000). Models of development and developmental risk. In C.H. Zeanah (Ed.), Handbook of infant mental health (2nd ed., pp. 3-19). New York: The Guilford Press.
109. Sands, R.G., & Goldberg-Glen, R.S. (1998). The impact of employment and serious illness on grand-mothers who are raising their grandchildren. Journal of Women & Aging, 10, 41-58.
110. Sands, R.G., & Goldberg-Glen, R. S. (2000). Factors associated with stress among grandparents raising their grandchildren. Family Relations, 49, 97-105.
111. Sawyer, R.J., & Dubowitz, H. (1994). School performance of children in kinship care. Child Abuse and Neglect, 18, 587-597.
112. Simons, R.L., Whitbeck, L.B., Conger, R.D., & Wu, C. (1991). Intergenerational transmission of harsh parenting. Developmental Psychology, 27, 159-171.
113. Smith, P.B., & Pederson, D.R. (1988). Maternal sensitivity and patterns of infant-mother attachment. Child Development, 59, 1097-1101.
114. Snell, T.L. (1994). Special report: Women in prison. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
115. Solomon, J., & George, C. (1996). Defining the caregiving system: Toward a theory of caregiving. Infant Mental Health Journal, 17, 183-197.
116. Stovall, K.C., & Dozier, M. (1998). Infants in foster care: An attachment theory perspective. Adoption Quarterly, 2, 55-85.
117. Stovall, K.C., & Dozier, M. (2000). The development of attachment in new relationships: Single subject analyses for 10 foster infants. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 133-156.
118. Strawbridge, W.J., Wallhagen, M.I., Shema, S.J., & Kaplan, O.A. (1997). New burdens or more of the same: Comparing grandparent, spouse, and adult-child caregivers. The Gerontologist, 37, 505-510.
119. Szinovacz, M.E., DeViney, S., & Atkinson, M.P. (1999). Effects of surrogate parenting on grandparents' well-being. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 54B, S376-S388.
120. Thompson, R.A. (1998). Early sociopersonality development. In N. Eisenberg & W. Damon (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (5th ed.): Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 25-104). New York: Wiley.
121. Thompson, R.A. (1999). Early attachment and later development. In J. Cassidy & P.R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications. New York: Guilford.
122. Tomlin, A.M., & Passman, R.H. (1989). Grandmothers' responsibility in raising two-year olds facilitates their grandchildren's adaptive behavior. Psychology and Aging, 4, 119-121.
123. U.S. General Accounting Office. (1995). Health needs of many young children are unknown and unmet (GAO/HEHS-95-114). Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office.
124. U.S. General Accounting Office. (1999). Women in prison: Issues and challenges confronting U.S. correctional systems (GAO/GGD-00-22). U.S. General Accounting Office.
125. van den Boom, D. (1994). The influence of temperament and mothering on attachment and exploration. Child Development, 65, 1457-1477.
126. van Uzendoorn, M. H. (1992). Intergenerational transmission of parenting: A review of studies in non-clinical populations. Developmental Review, 12, 76-99.
127. van Ilzendoorn, M.H., Schuengel, C., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (1999). Disorganized attachment in early childhood: Meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 225-249.
128. Vendra, J.I., Shaw, D.S., & Kevenides, M.C. (1995). Predicting infant attachment classification from multiple, contemporaneous measures of maternal care. Infant Behavior and Development, 18, 415-425.
129. Wakschlag, L.S., Chase-Lansdale, P.L., Brooks-Gunn, J. (1996). Not just "ghosts in the nursery": Contemporaneous intergenerational relationships and parenting in young African-American families. Child Development, 67, 2131-2147.
130. Werner, E.E. (2000). Protective factors and individual resilience. In J.P. Shonkoff & S.J. Meisels (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (2nd ed., pp. 115-132). New York: Cambridge University Press.
131. Wiscott, R., & Kopera-Frye, K. (2000). Adult grandchildren's perceptions of intergenerational relations. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 51, 199-215.
132. Young, D.S., & Smith, C.J. (2000). When moms are incarcerated: The needs of children, mothers, and caregivers. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 81, 130-141.