Public Discourse and "Virtual" Political Participation in the PRC: The Impact of the Internet

Issues and Studies

Volumn 39, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 1-38

  Hung, Chin Fu ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WARWICK   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

China; Political participation; Public opinion; Qiangguo luntan; Renmin ribao

Indexed keywords

EID: 2442440097     PISSN: 10132511     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (125)

1. For more discussion regarding the Chinese leadership transition and the 10th NPC, see H. Lyman Miller, "The 10th National People's Congress and China's Leadership Transition," China Leadership Monitor, no. 7 (Summer 2003), http://www.chinaleadershipmonitor.org/20033/lm.pdf (accessed on August 25, 2003).
2. See, for example: Anthony G. Wilhelm, Democracy in the Digital Age: Challenges to Political Life in Cyberspace (New York and London: Routledge, 2000); Barrie Axford and Richard Huggins, eds., New Media and Politics (London and Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001); Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1984); Chris Toulouse and Timothy W. Luke, eds., The Politics of Cyberspace: A New Political Science Reader (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Elaine Ciulla Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., eds., Governance.com: Democracy in the Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2002); Ian Budge, The New Challenge of Direct Democracy (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); Peter Ferdinand, ed., The Internet, Democracy, and Democratization (London: Frank Cass, 2000); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Roza Tsagarousianou, Damian Tambini, and Cathy Bryan, eds., Cyberdemocracy: Technology, Cities, and Civic Networks (London and New York: Routledge, 1998); Ted Becker and Christa Daryl Slaton, The Future of Teledemocracy (Westport, Conn. and London: Praeger, 2000); and W. Lance Bennett and Robert M. Entman, Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
3. See, for example: Anthony G. Wilhelm, Democracy in the Digital Age: Challenges to Political Life in Cyberspace (New York and London: Routledge, 2000); Barrie Axford and Richard Huggins, eds., New Media and Politics (London and Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001); Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1984); Chris Toulouse and Timothy W. Luke, eds., The Politics of Cyberspace: A New Political Science Reader (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Elaine Ciulla Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., eds., Governance.com: Democracy in the Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2002); Ian Budge, The New Challenge of Direct Democracy (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); Peter Ferdinand, ed., The Internet, Democracy, and Democratization (London: Frank Cass, 2000); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Roza Tsagarousianou, Damian Tambini, and Cathy Bryan, eds., Cyberdemocracy: Technology, Cities, and Civic Networks (London and New York: Routledge, 1998); Ted Becker and Christa Daryl Slaton, The Future of Teledemocracy (Westport, Conn. and London: Praeger, 2000); and W. Lance Bennett and Robert M. Entman, Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
4. See, for example: Anthony G. Wilhelm, Democracy in the Digital Age: Challenges to Political Life in Cyberspace (New York and London: Routledge, 2000); Barrie Axford and Richard Huggins, eds., New Media and Politics (London and Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001); Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1984); Chris Toulouse and Timothy W. Luke, eds., The Politics of Cyberspace: A New Political Science Reader (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Elaine Ciulla Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., eds., Governance.com: Democracy in the Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2002); Ian Budge, The New Challenge of Direct Democracy (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); Peter Ferdinand, ed., The Internet, Democracy, and Democratization (London: Frank Cass, 2000); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Roza Tsagarousianou, Damian Tambini, and Cathy Bryan, eds., Cyberdemocracy: Technology, Cities, and Civic Networks (London and New York: Routledge, 1998); Ted Becker and Christa Daryl Slaton, The Future of Teledemocracy (Westport, Conn. and London: Praeger, 2000); and W. Lance Bennett and Robert M. Entman, Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
5. See, for example: Anthony G. Wilhelm, Democracy in the Digital Age: Challenges to Political Life in Cyberspace (New York and London: Routledge, 2000); Barrie Axford and Richard Huggins, eds., New Media and Politics (London and Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001); Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1984); Chris Toulouse and Timothy W. Luke, eds., The Politics of Cyberspace: A New Political Science Reader (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Elaine Ciulla Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., eds., Governance.com: Democracy in the Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2002); Ian Budge, The New Challenge of Direct Democracy (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); Peter Ferdinand, ed., The Internet, Democracy, and Democratization (London: Frank Cass, 2000); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Roza Tsagarousianou, Damian Tambini, and Cathy Bryan, eds., Cyberdemocracy: Technology, Cities, and Civic Networks (London and New York: Routledge, 1998); Ted Becker and Christa Daryl Slaton, The Future of Teledemocracy (Westport, Conn. and London: Praeger, 2000); and W. Lance Bennett and Robert M. Entman, Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
6. See, for example: Anthony G. Wilhelm, Democracy in the Digital Age: Challenges to Political Life in Cyberspace (New York and London: Routledge, 2000); Barrie Axford and Richard Huggins, eds., New Media and Politics (London and Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001); Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1984); Chris Toulouse and Timothy W. Luke, eds., The Politics of Cyberspace: A New Political Science Reader (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Elaine Ciulla Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., eds., Governance.com: Democracy in the Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2002); Ian Budge, The New Challenge of Direct Democracy (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); Peter Ferdinand, ed., The Internet, Democracy, and Democratization (London: Frank Cass, 2000); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Roza Tsagarousianou, Damian Tambini, and Cathy Bryan, eds., Cyberdemocracy: Technology, Cities, and Civic Networks (London and New York: Routledge, 1998); Ted Becker and Christa Daryl Slaton, The Future of Teledemocracy (Westport, Conn. and London: Praeger, 2000); and W. Lance Bennett and Robert M. Entman, Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
7. See, for example: Anthony G. Wilhelm, Democracy in the Digital Age: Challenges to Political Life in Cyberspace (New York and London: Routledge, 2000); Barrie Axford and Richard Huggins, eds., New Media and Politics (London and Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001); Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1984); Chris Toulouse and Timothy W. Luke, eds., The Politics of Cyberspace: A New Political Science Reader (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Elaine Ciulla Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., eds., Governance.com: Democracy in the Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2002); Ian Budge, The New Challenge of Direct Democracy (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); Peter Ferdinand, ed., The Internet, Democracy, and Democratization (London: Frank Cass, 2000); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Roza Tsagarousianou, Damian Tambini, and Cathy Bryan, eds., Cyberdemocracy: Technology, Cities, and Civic Networks (London and New York: Routledge, 1998); Ted Becker and Christa Daryl Slaton, The Future of Teledemocracy (Westport, Conn. and London: Praeger, 2000); and W. Lance Bennett and Robert M. Entman, Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
8. See, for example: Anthony G. Wilhelm, Democracy in the Digital Age: Challenges to Political Life in Cyberspace (New York and London: Routledge, 2000); Barrie Axford and Richard Huggins, eds., New Media and Politics (London and Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001); Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1984); Chris Toulouse and Timothy W. Luke, eds., The Politics of Cyberspace: A New Political Science Reader (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Elaine Ciulla Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., eds., Governance.com: Democracy in the Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2002); Ian Budge, The New Challenge of Direct Democracy (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); Peter Ferdinand, ed., The Internet, Democracy, and Democratization (London: Frank Cass, 2000); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Roza Tsagarousianou, Damian Tambini, and Cathy Bryan, eds., Cyberdemocracy: Technology, Cities, and Civic Networks (London and New York: Routledge, 1998); Ted Becker and Christa Daryl Slaton, The Future of Teledemocracy (Westport, Conn. and London: Praeger, 2000); and W. Lance Bennett and Robert M. Entman, Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
9. See, for example: Anthony G. Wilhelm, Democracy in the Digital Age: Challenges to Political Life in Cyberspace (New York and London: Routledge, 2000); Barrie Axford and Richard Huggins, eds., New Media and Politics (London and Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001); Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1984); Chris Toulouse and Timothy W. Luke, eds., The Politics of Cyberspace: A New Political Science Reader (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Elaine Ciulla Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., eds., Governance.com: Democracy in the Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2002); Ian Budge, The New Challenge of Direct Democracy (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); Peter Ferdinand, ed., The Internet, Democracy, and Democratization (London: Frank Cass, 2000); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Roza Tsagarousianou, Damian Tambini, and Cathy Bryan, eds., Cyberdemocracy: Technology, Cities, and Civic Networks (London and New York: Routledge, 1998); Ted Becker and Christa Daryl Slaton, The Future of Teledemocracy (Westport, Conn. and London: Praeger, 2000); and W. Lance Bennett and Robert M. Entman, Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
10. See, for example: Anthony G. Wilhelm, Democracy in the Digital Age: Challenges to Political Life in Cyberspace (New York and London: Routledge, 2000); Barrie Axford and Richard Huggins, eds., New Media and Politics (London and Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001); Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1984); Chris Toulouse and Timothy W. Luke, eds., The Politics of Cyberspace: A New Political Science Reader (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Elaine Ciulla Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., eds., Governance.com: Democracy in the Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2002); Ian Budge, The New Challenge of Direct Democracy (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); Peter Ferdinand, ed., The Internet, Democracy, and Democratization (London: Frank Cass, 2000); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Roza Tsagarousianou, Damian Tambini, and Cathy Bryan, eds., Cyberdemocracy: Technology, Cities, and Civic Networks (London and New York: Routledge, 1998); Ted Becker and Christa Daryl Slaton, The Future of Teledemocracy (Westport, Conn. and London: Praeger, 2000); and W. Lance Bennett and Robert M. Entman, Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
11. See, for example: Anthony G. Wilhelm, Democracy in the Digital Age: Challenges to Political Life in Cyberspace (New York and London: Routledge, 2000); Barrie Axford and Richard Huggins, eds., New Media and Politics (London and Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001); Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1984); Chris Toulouse and Timothy W. Luke, eds., The Politics of Cyberspace: A New Political Science Reader (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Elaine Ciulla Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., eds., Governance.com: Democracy in the Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2002); Ian Budge, The New Challenge of Direct Democracy (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); Peter Ferdinand, ed., The Internet, Democracy, and Democratization (London: Frank Cass, 2000); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Roza Tsagarousianou, Damian Tambini, and Cathy Bryan, eds., Cyberdemocracy: Technology, Cities, and Civic Networks (London and New York: Routledge, 1998); Ted Becker and Christa Daryl Slaton, The Future of Teledemocracy (Westport, Conn. and London: Praeger, 2000); and W. Lance Bennett and Robert M. Entman, Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
12. See, for example: Anthony G. Wilhelm, Democracy in the Digital Age: Challenges to Political Life in Cyberspace (New York and London: Routledge, 2000); Barrie Axford and Richard Huggins, eds., New Media and Politics (London and Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001); Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1984); Chris Toulouse and Timothy W. Luke, eds., The Politics of Cyberspace: A New Political Science Reader (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Elaine Ciulla Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., eds., Governance.com: Democracy in the Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2002); Ian Budge, The New Challenge of Direct Democracy (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); Peter Ferdinand, ed., The Internet, Democracy, and Democratization (London: Frank Cass, 2000); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Roza Tsagarousianou, Damian Tambini, and Cathy Bryan, eds., Cyberdemocracy: Technology, Cities, and Civic Networks (London and New York: Routledge, 1998); Ted Becker and Christa Daryl Slaton, The Future of Teledemocracy (Westport, Conn. and London: Praeger, 2000); and W. Lance Bennett and Robert M. Entman, Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
13. Vertical mode of communication between governments and citizens is not the main focus of this research paper. For more on the electronic government/governance in China and its interactions with citizens, see, for example: Junhua Zhang, "China's 'Government On-line' and Attempts to Gain Technical Legitimacy," ASIEN 80 (July 2001), http://web.syr.edu/~ztan/Gov2.pdf (accessed on November 18, 2001); Junhua Zhang, "Will the Government 'Serve the People': The Development of Chinese E-Government," New Media & Society 4, no. 2 (June 2002): 163-84; "Jiefang ribao anfang Shanghai zhengfu bumen wangzhan" (A secret investigatory survey of the Shanghai city government's web site by journalists from the Liberation Daily), Renmin wang, July 7, 2003, http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/14562/1955049. html (accessed on July 31, 2003); and "Renmin shiping: 'Wangshang zhengfu' yinggai shenmoyang?" (People's Daily commentary: What the "on-line government" should be?), Renmin wang, July 11, 2003, http://www.people.com.cn/GB/guandian/1033/1961999.html (accessed on July 31, 2003).
14. Vertical mode of communication between governments and citizens is not the main focus of this research paper. For more on the electronic government/governance in China and its interactions with citizens, see, for example: Junhua Zhang, "China's 'Government On-line' and Attempts to Gain Technical Legitimacy," ASIEN 80 (July 2001), http://web.syr.edu/~ztan/Gov2.pdf (accessed on November 18, 2001); Junhua Zhang, "Will the Government 'Serve the People': The Development of Chinese E-Government," New Media & Society 4, no. 2 (June 2002): 163-84; "Jiefang ribao anfang Shanghai zhengfu bumen wangzhan" (A secret investigatory survey of the Shanghai city government's web site by journalists from the Liberation Daily), Renmin wang, July 7, 2003, http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/14562/1955049. html (accessed on July 31, 2003); and "Renmin shiping: 'Wangshang zhengfu' yinggai shenmoyang?" (People's Daily commentary: What the "on-line government" should be?), Renmin wang, July 11, 2003, http://www.people.com.cn/GB/guandian/1033/1961999.html (accessed on July 31, 2003).
15. Vertical mode of communication between governments and citizens is not the main focus of this research paper. For more on the electronic government/governance in China and its interactions with citizens, see, for example: Junhua Zhang, "China's 'Government On-line' and Attempts to Gain Technical Legitimacy," ASIEN 80 (July 2001), http://web.syr.edu/~ztan/Gov2.pdf (accessed on November 18, 2001); Junhua Zhang, "Will the Government 'Serve the People': The Development of Chinese E-Government," New Media & Society 4, no. 2 (June 2002): 163-84; "Jiefang ribao anfang Shanghai zhengfu bumen wangzhan" (A secret investigatory survey of the Shanghai city government's web site by journalists from the Liberation Daily), Renmin wang, July 7, 2003, http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/14562/1955049. html (accessed on July 31, 2003); and "Renmin shiping: 'Wangshang zhengfu' yinggai shenmoyang?" (People's Daily commentary: What the "on-line government" should be?), Renmin wang, July 11, 2003, http://www.people.com.cn/GB/guandian/1033/1961999.html (accessed on July 31, 2003).
16. Vertical mode of communication between governments and citizens is not the main focus of this research paper. For more on the electronic government/governance in China and its interactions with citizens, see, for example: Junhua Zhang, "China's 'Government On-line' and Attempts to Gain Technical Legitimacy," ASIEN 80 (July 2001), http://web.syr.edu/~ztan/Gov2.pdf (accessed on November 18, 2001); Junhua Zhang, "Will the Government 'Serve the People': The Development of Chinese E-Government," New Media & Society 4, no. 2 (June 2002): 163-84; "Jiefang ribao anfang Shanghai zhengfu bumen wangzhan" (A secret investigatory survey of the Shanghai city government's web site by journalists from the Liberation Daily), Renmin wang, July 7, 2003, http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/14562/1955049. html (accessed on July 31, 2003); and "Renmin shiping: 'Wangshang zhengfu' yinggai shenmoyang?" (People's Daily commentary: What the "on-line government" should be?), Renmin wang, July 11, 2003, http://www.people.com.cn/GB/guandian/1033/1961999.html (accessed on July 31, 2003).
17. Howard Rheingold, The Virtual Community: Surfing the Internet (London: Minerva, 1994), 14.
18. Geoffry Taubmann, "A Not-So World Wide Web: The Internet, China, and the Challenges to Nondemocratic Rule," Political Communication 15, no. 2 (March 1998): 255-72.
19. See Shanthi Kalathil and Taylor C. Boas, Open Networks, Closed Regimes: The Impact of the Internet on Authoritarian Rule (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2003). A similar argument can be found in Shanthi Kalathil, "Dot Com for Dictators," Foreign Policy, no. 135 (March/April 2003): 42-49.
20. See Shanthi Kalathil and Taylor C. Boas, Open Networks, Closed Regimes: The Impact of the Internet on Authoritarian Rule (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2003). A similar argument can be found in Shanthi Kalathil, "Dot Com for Dictators," Foreign Policy, no. 135 (March/April 2003): 42-49.
21. See Christopher R. Hughes and Gudrun Wacker, eds., China and the Internet: Politics of the Digital Leap Forward (London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003). Other works of this kind include: Christopher R. Hughes, "China and the Globalization of ICTs: Implications for International Studies," New Media & Society 4, no. 2 (June 2002): 205-24; Jack Linchuan Qiu, "Virtual Censorship in China: Keeping the Gate Between the Cyberspace," International Journal of Communications Law and Policy 4 (Winter 1999):1-25; Wenzhao Tao, "Censorship and Protest: The Regulations of BBS in China People's Daily," First Monday 6, no. 1 (January 2001), http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue6_1/tao/index .html (accessed on February 12, 2001); and Lokman Tsui, "The Anti-Thesis of a Space of Freedom: Control and Regulation of the Internet in China," China Information (forthcoming).
22. See Christopher R. Hughes and Gudrun Wacker, eds., China and the Internet: Politics of the Digital Leap Forward (London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003). Other works of this kind include: Christopher R. Hughes, "China and the Globalization of ICTs: Implications for International Studies," New Media & Society 4, no. 2 (June 2002): 205-24; Jack Linchuan Qiu, "Virtual Censorship in China: Keeping the Gate Between the Cyberspace," International Journal of Communications Law and Policy 4 (Winter 1999):1-25; Wenzhao Tao, "Censorship and Protest: The Regulations of BBS in China People's Daily," First Monday 6, no. 1 (January 2001), http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue6_1/tao/index .html (accessed on February 12, 2001); and Lokman Tsui, "The Anti-Thesis of a Space of Freedom: Control and Regulation of the Internet in China," China Information (forthcoming).
23. See Christopher R. Hughes and Gudrun Wacker, eds., China and the Internet: Politics of the Digital Leap Forward (London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003). Other works of this kind include: Christopher R. Hughes, "China and the Globalization of ICTs: Implications for International Studies," New Media & Society 4, no. 2 (June 2002): 205-24; Jack Linchuan Qiu, "Virtual Censorship in China: Keeping the Gate Between the Cyberspace," International Journal of Communications Law and Policy 4 (Winter 1999):1-25; Wenzhao Tao, "Censorship and Protest: The Regulations of BBS in China People's Daily," First Monday 6, no. 1 (January 2001), http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue6_1/tao/index .html (accessed on February 12, 2001); and Lokman Tsui, "The Anti-Thesis of a Space of Freedom: Control and Regulation of the Internet in China," China Information (forthcoming).
24. See Christopher R. Hughes and Gudrun Wacker, eds., China and the Internet: Politics of the Digital Leap Forward (London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003). Other works of this kind include: Christopher R. Hughes, "China and the Globalization of ICTs: Implications for International Studies," New Media & Society 4, no. 2 (June 2002): 205-24; Jack Linchuan Qiu, "Virtual Censorship in China: Keeping the Gate Between the Cyberspace," International Journal of Communications Law and Policy 4 (Winter 1999):1-25; Wenzhao Tao, "Censorship and Protest: The Regulations of BBS in China People's Daily," First Monday 6, no. 1 (January 2001), http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue6_1/tao/index .html (accessed on February 12, 2001); and Lokman Tsui, "The Anti-Thesis of a Space of Freedom: Control and Regulation of the Internet in China," China Information (forthcoming).
25. See Christopher R. Hughes and Gudrun Wacker, eds., China and the Internet: Politics of the Digital Leap Forward (London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003). Other works of this kind include: Christopher R. Hughes, "China and the Globalization of ICTs: Implications for International Studies," New Media & Society 4, no. 2 (June 2002): 205-24; Jack Linchuan Qiu, "Virtual Censorship in China: Keeping the Gate Between the Cyberspace," International Journal of Communications Law and Policy 4 (Winter 1999):1-25; Wenzhao Tao, "Censorship and Protest: The Regulations of BBS in China People's Daily," First Monday 6, no. 1 (January 2001), http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue6_1/tao/index .html (accessed on February 12, 2001); and Lokman Tsui, "The Anti-Thesis of a Space of Freedom: Control and Regulation of the Internet in China," China Information (forthcoming).
26. The CCP prefers the term "patriotism" to " nationalism." Patriotism is used to stress loyalty to and passion for the CCP and the communist cadres-based governments. During two major incidents-NATO's bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade in May 1999 and a U.S. surveillance plane's collision with a Chinese jet fighter in April 2001-the Chinese government allegedly instigated or acquiesced in furious anti-American discourses on-line. The authorities in Beijing sought to turn public outrage into Chinese patriotism.
27. See Christopher R. Hughes, "Nationalism in Chinese Cyberspace, " Cambridge Review of International Affairs 13, no. 2 (Spring/Summer 2000): 195-206. For other similar arguments, see Randy Kluver, "New Media and the End of Nationalism: China and the U.S. in a War of Words," Mots Pluriels 18 (August 2001), http://www.arts.uwa.edu.au/Mots-Pluriels/MP1801ak.html (accessed on January 12, 2002); and Jack Linchuan Qiu, "Chinese Opinions Collide On-line: U.S. -China Plane Collision Sparks Civil Discussion on the Web," On-line Journalism Review, April 12, 2001, http://ojr.usc.edu/content/story. cfm? id= 561 (accessed on April 20, 2001).
28. See Christopher R. Hughes, "Nationalism in Chinese Cyberspace, " Cambridge Review of International Affairs 13, no. 2 (Spring/Summer 2000): 195-206. For other similar arguments, see Randy Kluver, "New Media and the End of Nationalism: China and the U.S. in a War of Words," Mots Pluriels 18 (August 2001), http://www.arts.uwa.edu.au/Mots-Pluriels/MP1801ak.html (accessed on January 12, 2002); and Jack Linchuan Qiu, "Chinese Opinions Collide On-line: U.S. -China Plane Collision Sparks Civil Discussion on the Web," On-line Journalism Review, April 12, 2001, http://ojr.usc.edu/content/story. cfm? id= 561 (accessed on April 20, 2001).
29. See Christopher R. Hughes, "Nationalism in Chinese Cyberspace, " Cambridge Review of International Affairs 13, no. 2 (Spring/Summer 2000): 195-206. For other similar arguments, see Randy Kluver, "New Media and the End of Nationalism: China and the U.S. in a War of Words," Mots Pluriels 18 (August 2001), http://www.arts.uwa.edu.au/Mots-Pluriels/MP1801ak.html (accessed on January 12, 2002); and Jack Linchuan Qiu, "Chinese Opinions Collide On-line: U.S. -China Plane Collision Sparks Civil Discussion on the Web," On-line Journalism Review, April 12, 2001, http://ojr.usc.edu/content/story. cfm? id= 561 (accessed on April 20, 2001).
30. See Nina Hachigian and Lily Wu, The Information Revolution in Asia (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2003), 73. For earlier research, see Nina Hachigian, "The Internet and Power in One-Party East Asian States," The Washington Quarterly 25, no. 3 (Summer 2002): 41-58; and Nina Hachigian, "China's Cyber-Strategy," Foreign Affairs 80, no. 2 (March/April 2001): 118-33.
31. See Nina Hachigian and Lily Wu, The Information Revolution in Asia (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2003), 73. For earlier research, see Nina Hachigian, "The Internet and Power in One-Party East Asian States," The Washington Quarterly 25, no. 3 (Summer 2002): 41-58; and Nina Hachigian, "China's Cyber-Strategy," Foreign Affairs 80, no. 2 (March/April 2001): 118-33.
32. See Nina Hachigian and Lily Wu, The Information Revolution in Asia (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2003), 73. For earlier research, see Nina Hachigian, "The Internet and Power in One-Party East Asian States," The Washington Quarterly 25, no. 3 (Summer 2002): 41-58; and Nina Hachigian, "China's Cyber-Strategy," Foreign Affairs 80, no. 2 (March/April 2001): 118-33.
33. Any sort of communication (including political communication) requires at least two essential elements: one is the "public" and the other is the "public place." Drucker and Gumpert have argued that the public place is the catalyst for expression in the public forum, and is also the backstage area for unstructured and informal social gatherings. See Susan J. Drucker and Gary Gumpert, "Freedom and Liability in Cyberspace: Media, Metaphors, and Paths of Regulation," in Real Law@Virtual Space: Communication Regulation in Cyberspace, ed. Susan J. Drucker and Gary Gumpert (Cresskill, N.J.: Hampton Press, 1999), 80.
34. Daniel C. Lynch argues that one of the most significant developments in Chinese "thought work" since the 14th Party Congress in 1992 is the combination of mass media and telecommunications in the form of numerous radio and television hotlines-jiaodian fangtan (focus) programs, where listeners with access to a telephone can ask questions and offer opinions. See Daniel C. Lynch, After the Propaganda State: Media, Politics, and "Thought Work" in Reformed China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999), 101.
35. See, for example: "Wangshang 'renmin luntan' - Qianxi Renmin ribao wangluoban 'qiang-guo luntan'" (On-line "people's forum" - Reviewing the "strong country forum" in the People's Daily), Xinwen zhanxian (News Front), December 22, 1999, http://bbs.people.com.cn/fuwu/mt/mt-1/004.html (accessed on April 12, 2003); Du Ping, "Zhongguo de 'wang-shang tequ'" ("On-line special zone" in China), Lianhe zaobao (Singapore) (July 17, 2000),http://bbs.people.com.cn/fuwu/mt/mt-1/006.html (accessed on April 12, 2003); and Xue Yan, "Renminwang wunian chengguo huihuang" (Fruitful accomplishments of the on-line People's Daily), Jinghua shibao (January 6, 2002), http://www.people.com.cn/GB/other 7018/7248/7249/20020404/702365.html (accessed on April 11, 2003).
36. See, for example: "Wangshang 'renmin luntan' - Qianxi Renmin ribao wangluoban 'qiang-guo luntan'" (On-line "people's forum" - Reviewing the "strong country forum" in the People's Daily), Xinwen zhanxian (News Front), December 22, 1999, http://bbs.people.com.cn/fuwu/mt/mt-1/004.html (accessed on April 12, 2003); Du Ping, "Zhongguo de 'wang-shang tequ'" ("On-line special zone" in China), Lianhe zaobao (Singapore) (July 17, 2000),http://bbs.people.com.cn/fuwu/mt/mt-1/006.html (accessed on April 12, 2003); and Xue Yan, "Renminwang wunian chengguo huihuang" (Fruitful accomplishments of the on-line People's Daily), Jinghua shibao (January 6, 2002), http://www.people.com.cn/GB/other 7018/7248/7249/20020404/702365.html (accessed on April 11, 2003).
37. See, for example: "Wangshang 'renmin luntan' - Qianxi Renmin ribao wangluoban 'qiang-guo luntan'" (On-line "people's forum" - Reviewing the "strong country forum" in the People's Daily), Xinwen zhanxian (News Front), December 22, 1999, http://bbs.people.com.cn/fuwu/mt/mt-1/004.html (accessed on April 12, 2003); Du Ping, "Zhongguo de 'wang-shang tequ'" ("On-line special zone" in China), Lianhe zaobao (Singapore) (July 17, 2000),http://bbs.people.com.cn/fuwu/mt/mt-1/006.html (accessed on April 12, 2003); and Xue Yan, "Renminwang wunian chengguo huihuang" (Fruitful accomplishments of the on-line People's Daily), Jinghua shibao (January 6, 2002), http://www.people.com.cn/GB/other 7018/7248/7249/20020404/702365.html (accessed on April 11, 2003).
38. See, for example: James Stanyer, "Political Communication in Transition: Conceptualizing Change and Understanding its Consequences," European Journal of Communication 18, no. 3 (September 2003): 385-94; and Robert W. McChesney and Dan Schiller, "The Political Economy of International Communications: Foundations for the Emerging Global Debate over Media Ownership and Regulation" (Paper prepared for the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development background work, World Summit on the Information Society, April 2002), http://www.unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760.f80256b4.f005. dalab/c9dcba6c7db7c2ac1256bdf0049a774/$FILE/chesney. pdf (accessed on August 28, 2003).
39. See, for example: James Stanyer, "Political Communication in Transition: Conceptualizing Change and Understanding its Consequences," European Journal of Communication 18, no. 3 (September 2003): 385-94; and Robert W. McChesney and Dan Schiller, "The Political Economy of International Communications: Foundations for the Emerging Global Debate over Media Ownership and Regulation" (Paper prepared for the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development background work, World Summit on the Information Society, April 2002), http://www.unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760.f80256b4.f005. dalab/c9dcba6c7db7c2ac1256bdf0049a774/$FILE/chesney. pdf (accessed on August 28, 2003).
40. See, for example: Junhao Hong and Yu-Chiung Hsu, "Asian NIC's Broadcast Media in the Era of Globalization: The Trend of Commercialization and its Impact, Implications, and Limits," Gazette 61, no. 3/4 (July 1999): 225-42; John Street, Mass Media, Politics, and Democracy (New York: Palgrave, 2001), chap. 6; Terhi Rantanen, The Global and the National: Media and Communications in Post-communist Russia (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002); and Nancy Morris and Silvio Waisbord, eds., Media and Globalization: Why the State Matters (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001).
41. See, for example: Junhao Hong and Yu-Chiung Hsu, "Asian NIC's Broadcast Media in the Era of Globalization: The Trend of Commercialization and its Impact, Implications, and Limits," Gazette 61, no. 3/4 (July 1999): 225-42; John Street, Mass Media, Politics, and Democracy (New York: Palgrave, 2001), chap. 6; Terhi Rantanen, The Global and the National: Media and Communications in Post-communist Russia (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002); and Nancy Morris and Silvio Waisbord, eds., Media and Globalization: Why the State Matters (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001).
42. See, for example: Junhao Hong and Yu-Chiung Hsu, "Asian NIC's Broadcast Media in the Era of Globalization: The Trend of Commercialization and its Impact, Implications, and Limits," Gazette 61, no. 3/4 (July 1999): 225-42; John Street, Mass Media, Politics, and Democracy (New York: Palgrave, 2001), chap. 6; Terhi Rantanen, The Global and the National: Media and Communications in Post-communist Russia (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002); and Nancy Morris and Silvio Waisbord, eds., Media and Globalization: Why the State Matters (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001).
43. See, for example: Junhao Hong and Yu-Chiung Hsu, "Asian NIC's Broadcast Media in the Era of Globalization: The Trend of Commercialization and its Impact, Implications, and Limits," Gazette 61, no. 3/4 (July 1999): 225-42; John Street, Mass Media, Politics, and Democracy (New York: Palgrave, 2001), chap. 6; Terhi Rantanen, The Global and the National: Media and Communications in Post-communist Russia (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002); and Nancy Morris and Silvio Waisbord, eds., Media and Globalization: Why the State Matters (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001).
44. Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society, second edition (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), 391-92.
45. People without access to information technology constitute part of what Manual Castells calls "the Fourth World," which comprises large areas of the globe: Sub-Saharan Africa, and impoverished rural areas of Latin America and Asia. For an informed discussion on informational capitalism, poverty, and social exclusion in the Fourth World, see Manuel Castells, End of Millennium, second edition (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), chap. 2.
46. Brian McNair, An Introduction to Political Communication (London and New York: Routledge, 1995), 5.
47. A survey using Google revealed that business-related web sites and web pages worldwide greatly outnumber those for politics and news information: 172,000,000 vs. 3,120,000 entries respectively. Similarly, there were about 1,590,000 business entries vs. 872,000 for politics and news-based web sites as per a survey of the Chinese version of Google. The surveys of both the standard and Chinese versions of the Google search engine were conducted on May 27, 2003 by this author.
48. There is much literature arguing that the Internet has a positive effect in shaping the public sphere in general terms. See, for example: Lincoln Dahlberg, "The Internet and Democratic Discourse: Exploring the Prospects of On-line Deliberative Forums Extending the Public Sphere," Information, Communication & Society 4, no. 4 (2001): 615-33; Mark Poster, "Cyberdemocracy: Internet and the Public Sphere," in Internet Culture, ed. David Porter (New York and London: Routledge, 1996), 201-17; Douglas Kellner, "Intellectuals, the New Public Spheres, and Techno-politics, " in Toulouse and Luke, The Politics of Cyberspace, 167-86; and Lincoln Dahlberg, "Computer-Mediated Communication and the Public Sphere: A Critical Analysis," Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 7, no. 1 (October 2001), http://www.ascuse.org/jcmc/vol7/issue1/dahlberg.html (accessed on December 11, 2002).
49. There is much literature arguing that the Internet has a positive effect in shaping the public sphere in general terms. See, for example: Lincoln Dahlberg, "The Internet and Democratic Discourse: Exploring the Prospects of On-line Deliberative Forums Extending the Public Sphere," Information, Communication & Society 4, no. 4 (2001): 615-33; Mark Poster, "Cyberdemocracy: Internet and the Public Sphere," in Internet Culture, ed. David Porter (New York and London: Routledge, 1996), 201-17; Douglas Kellner, "Intellectuals, the New Public Spheres, and Techno-politics, " in Toulouse and Luke, The Politics of Cyberspace, 167-86; and Lincoln Dahlberg, "Computer-Mediated Communication and the Public Sphere: A Critical Analysis," Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 7, no. 1 (October 2001), http://www.ascuse.org/jcmc/vol7/issue1/dahlberg.html (accessed on December 11, 2002).
50. There is much literature arguing that the Internet has a positive effect in shaping the public sphere in general terms. See, for example: Lincoln Dahlberg, "The Internet and Democratic Discourse: Exploring the Prospects of On-line Deliberative Forums Extending the Public Sphere," Information, Communication & Society 4, no. 4 (2001): 615-33; Mark Poster, "Cyberdemocracy: Internet and the Public Sphere," in Internet Culture, ed. David Porter (New York and London: Routledge, 1996), 201-17; Douglas Kellner, "Intellectuals, the New Public Spheres, and Techno-politics, " in Toulouse and Luke, The Politics of Cyberspace, 167-86; and Lincoln Dahlberg, "Computer-Mediated Communication and the Public Sphere: A Critical Analysis," Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 7, no. 1 (October 2001), http://www.ascuse.org/jcmc/vol7/issue1/dahlberg.html (accessed on December 11, 2002).
51. There is much literature arguing that the Internet has a positive effect in shaping the public sphere in general terms. See, for example: Lincoln Dahlberg, "The Internet and Democratic Discourse: Exploring the Prospects of On-line Deliberative Forums Extending the Public Sphere," Information, Communication & Society 4, no. 4 (2001): 615-33; Mark Poster, "Cyberdemocracy: Internet and the Public Sphere," in Internet Culture, ed. David Porter (New York and London: Routledge, 1996), 201-17; Douglas Kellner, "Intellectuals, the New Public Spheres, and Techno-politics, " in Toulouse and Luke, The Politics of Cyberspace, 167-86; and Lincoln Dahlberg, "Computer-Mediated Communication and the Public Sphere: A Critical Analysis," Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 7, no. 1 (October 2001), http://www.ascuse.org/jcmc/vol7/issue1/dahlberg.html (accessed on December 11, 2002).
52. See Guo Liang and Bu Wei, "Internet Use in China-A Comparative Analysis," in China's Digital Dream-The Impact of the Internet on Chinese Society, ed. Junhua Zhang and Martin Woesler (Bochum: The University Press of Bochum, 2002), 86. Other notable research directed by Hong Kong-based academics has also shown similar results: most Internet users spend most of their time searching for work or study-related information, followed by reading on-line news and taking part in on-line chat and discussions. See Jonathan J.H. Zhu and Zhou He, "Perceived Characteristics, Perceived Needs, and Perceived Popularity: Adoption and Use of the Internet in China," Communication Research 29, no. 4 (August 2002): 466-95.
53. See Guo Liang and Bu Wei, "Internet Use in China-A Comparative Analysis," in China's Digital Dream-The Impact of the Internet on Chinese Society, ed. Junhua Zhang and Martin Woesler (Bochum: The University Press of Bochum, 2002), 86. Other notable research directed by Hong Kong-based academics has also shown similar results: most Internet users spend most of their time searching for work or study-related information, followed by reading on-line news and taking part in on-line chat and discussions. See Jonathan J.H. Zhu and Zhou He, "Perceived Characteristics, Perceived Needs, and Perceived Popularity: Adoption and Use of the Internet in China," Communication Research 29, no. 4 (August 2002): 466-95.
54. Jonathan J.H. Zhu and Zhou He, "Information Accessibility, User Sophistication, and Source Credibility: The Impact of the Internet on Value Orientations in Mainland China," Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 7, no. 2 (January 2002), http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol7/issues2/china.html (accessed on May 16, 2002).
55. See, for example: Bruce J. Dickson, Democratization in China and Taiwan: The Adaptability of Leninist Parties (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997); Gordon White, Riding the Tiger: The Politics ofEconomic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993); Kalpana Misra, From Post-Maoism to Post-Marxism: The Erosion of Official Ideology in Deng's China (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar, "Dynamic Economy, Declining Party-State," in The Paradox of China's Post-Mao Reform, ed. Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1999), 3-29; and X. L. Ding, The Decline of Communism in China: Legitimacy Crisis, 1977-1989 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
56. See, for example: Bruce J. Dickson, Democratization in China and Taiwan: The Adaptability of Leninist Parties (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997); Gordon White, Riding the Tiger: The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993); Kalpana Misra, From Post-Maoism to Post-Marxism: The Erosion of Official Ideology in Deng's China (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar, "Dynamic Economy, Declining Party-State," in The Paradox of China's Post-Mao Reform, ed. Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1999), 3-29; and X. L. Ding, The Decline of Communism in China: Legitimacy Crisis, 1977-1989 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
57. See, for example: Bruce J. Dickson, Democratization in China and Taiwan: The Adaptability of Leninist Parties (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997); Gordon White, Riding the Tiger: The Politics ofEconomic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993); Kalpana Misra, From Post-Maoism to Post-Marxism: The Erosion of Official Ideology in Deng's China (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar, "Dynamic Economy, Declining Party-State," in The Paradox of China's Post-Mao Reform, ed. Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1999), 3-29; and X. L. Ding, The Decline of Communism in China: Legitimacy Crisis, 1977-1989 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
58. See, for example: Bruce J. Dickson, Democratization in China and Taiwan: The Adaptability of Leninist Parties (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997); Gordon White, Riding the Tiger: The Politics ofEconomic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993); Kalpana Misra, From Post-Maoism to Post-Marxism: The Erosion of Official Ideology in Deng's China (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar, "Dynamic Economy, Declining Party-State," in The Paradox of China's Post-Mao Reform, ed. Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1999), 3-29; and X. L. Ding, The Decline of Communism in China: Legitimacy Crisis, 1977-1989 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
59. See, for example: Bruce J. Dickson, Democratization in China and Taiwan: The Adaptability of Leninist Parties (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997); Gordon White, Riding the Tiger: The Politics ofEconomic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993); Kalpana Misra, From Post-Maoism to Post-Marxism: The Erosion of Official Ideology in Deng's China (New York and London: Routledge, 1998); Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar, "Dynamic Economy, Declining Party-State," in The Paradox of China's Post-Mao Reform, ed. Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1999), 3-29; and X. L. Ding, The Decline of Communism in China: Legitimacy Crisis, 1977-1989 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
60. Wei-wei Zhang, Transforming China: Economic Reform and Its Political Implications (London: Macmillan, 2000), chap. 13.
61. Jan W. van Deth, "Introduction: The Impact of Values," in The Impact of Values, ed. Jan W. van Deth and Elinor Scarbrough (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 2.
62. I b i d.
63. Thomas P. Bernstein and Xiaobo Lu, "Taxation without Representation: Peasants, the Central and Local States in Reform China," The China Quarterly, no. 163 (September 2000): 742-63.
64. Zhu Rongji, "Zhengfu gongzuo baogao" (Report on government work), March 5, 2003; full text was released by Xinhua on March 19, 2003, and is available at http://www.people.com .cn/GB/shizheng/16/20030319/947375.html (accessed on March 22, 2003).
65. "Wen Jiabao zongli da Zhongwaijizhe wen" (Premier Wen Jiabao answering questions from domestic and foreign journalists), Renmin ribao, March 19, 2003, 1; available at http://www.people.com.cn/GB/paper464/8738/816649.html (accessed on March 20, 2003).
66. Xiang Huaicheng, "Guanyu 2002 nian zhongyang han difang yusuan zhixing qingkuang ji 2003 nian zhongyang han difang yusuan caoan de baogao" (Report on the implementation of the central and local budgets for 2002 and on the draft of the central and local budgets for 2003); full text was released by Xinhua on March 20, 2003 and is available at http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/19/20030320/948375.html (accessed on March 22, 2003).
67. See China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC), Semiannual Survey Report on the Development of China's Internet (July 2003), http://www.cnnic.net.cn/develst/2003-7/ (accessed on July 17, 2003).
68. See, for example: Joe C.B. Leung, "Social Security Reforms in China: Issues and Prospects," International Journal of Social Welfare 12, no. 2 (April 2003): 73-85; Peter Whiteford, "From Enterprise Protection to Social Protection: Pension Reform in China," Global Social Policy 3, no. 1 (April 2003): 45-77; Sarah Cook, "From Rice Bowl to Safety Net: Insecurity and Social Protection during China's Transition," Development Policy Review 20, no. 5 (November 2002): 615-35; and Peter Saunders and Xiaoyuan Shang, "Social Security Reform in China's Transition to a Market Economy," Social Policy and Administration 35, no. 3 (July 2001): 274-89.
69. See, for example: Joe C.B. Leung, "Social Security Reforms in China: Issues and Prospects," International Journal of Social Welfare 12, no. 2 (April 2003): 73-85; Peter Whiteford, "From Enterprise Protection to Social Protection: Pension Reform in China," Global Social Policy 3, no. 1 (April 2003): 45-77; Sarah Cook, "From Rice Bowl to Safety Net: Insecurity and Social Protection during China's Transition," Development Policy Review 20, no. 5 (November 2002): 615-35; and Peter Saunders and Xiaoyuan Shang, "Social Security Reform in China's Transition to a Market Economy," Social Policy and Administration 35, no. 3 (July 2001): 274-89.
70. See, for example: Joe C.B. Leung, "Social Security Reforms in China: Issues and Prospects," International Journal of Social Welfare 12, no. 2 (April 2003): 73-85; Peter Whiteford, "From Enterprise Protection to Social Protection: Pension Reform in China," Global Social Policy 3, no. 1 (April 2003): 45-77; Sarah Cook, "From Rice Bowl to Safety Net: Insecurity and Social Protection during China's Transition," Development Policy Review 20, no. 5 (November 2002): 615-35; and Peter Saunders and Xiaoyuan Shang, "Social Security Reform in China's Transition to a Market Economy," Social Policy and Administration 35, no. 3 (July 2001): 274-89.
71. See, for example: Joe C.B. Leung, "Social Security Reforms in China: Issues and Prospects," International Journal of Social Welfare 12, no. 2 (April 2003): 73-85; Peter Whiteford, "From Enterprise Protection to Social Protection: Pension Reform in China," Global Social Policy 3, no. 1 (April 2003): 45-77; Sarah Cook, "From Rice Bowl to Safety Net: Insecurity and Social Protection during China's Transition," Development Policy Review 20, no. 5 (November 2002): 615-35; and Peter Saunders and Xiaoyuan Shang, "Social Security Reform in China's Transition to a Market Economy," Social Policy and Administration 35, no. 3 (July 2001): 274-89.
72. "Zhuanjia huizhen Zhongguo jingji wuda nanti" (Experts for group consultations on five major Chinese economic problems), Guoji jinrong bao (International Financial Daily), June 28, 2002, 4.
73. Michel Bonnin, "Perspectives on Social Stability after the Fifteenth Congress," in China Under Jiang Zemin, ed. Hung-mao Tien and Yun-han Chu (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 2000), 158.
74. The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences' annual report on social trends noted that in the coming years China's unemployment rate could surge above 15 percent, compared with an official figure of 3.6 percent in urban areas now, though unofficial estimates put the figure around 8-20 percent. See "A Survey of China - Urban Discontent," The Economist, June 15, 2002, 13.
75. "Zhang Zuoji, Yang Yanyin jiu jiuye han shehui baozhang, zuidi shenghuo baozhang deng huida jizhe wen" (Zhang Zuoji and Yang Yanyin answering questions on employment, social security, and minimum social insurance), Renmin ribao, March 13, 2003, 4; available at http://www.people.com.cn/GB/paper464/8688/813340.html (accessed on March 13, 2003).
76. See note 30 above.
77. James Kynge, "Beijing Budget Shifts Emphasis to Help the Poor, " Financial Times, March 7, 2003.
78. Zhu's concern over the social security system in the rural areas is echoed by Chen Xiwen, deputy director of the Development Research Center of the State Council, who stated that for the time being the country's social security system is not able to cover the total rural population of 800 million. See "Nongye han nongcun jingji xingshi shixian le lishixing zhuanbian" (The situation in agriculture and the rural economy have undergone historic changes), Renmin ribao, March 11, 2003, 4, available at http://www.people.com.cn/GB/paper464/8668/811778.html (accessed on March 13, 2003).
79. Reporters Without Borders, China: Living Dangerously on the Net-Censorship and Surveillance of Internet Forums (May 12, 2003), available at http://www.rsf.org/print.php3?id_article=6793 (accessed on May 14, 2003).
80. "Li Peng: Jinyibu shixian renda jiandu gongzuo guifanhua faluhua" (Li Peng: Further implementing the supervisory role of the NPC deputies in a standardized and codified fashion), Renmin ribao, March 13, 2003, 1, available at http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/252/10307/10314/20030313/942496.html (accessed on March 13, 2003).
81. Li Peng, "Quanguo remnin daibiao dahui changwu weiyuanhui gongzuo baogao" (Report on the work of the 9th NPC Standing Committee) (March 10, 2003), http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/16/20030321/949488.html (accessed on March 22, 2003).
82. Jia Qinglin, "Zai Quanguo zhengxie shijie yici huiyi bimuhui shang de jianghua" (Talk at the closing meeting of the 1st session of the 10th CPPCC), Renmin ribao, March 15, 2003, 1, available at http://www.people.com.cn/GB/paper464/8705/814533.html (accessed on March 15, 2003).
83. See note 29 above.
84. "Chinese Vice Premier Underlines Democratic Decision Mechanism," Xinhua, March 5, 2003, http://www.10thnpc.org.cn/english/features/57347.htm (accessed on March 7, 2003).
85. "China to Establish Comprehensive Legal System by 2010," People's Daily On-line, March 17, 2003, http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200303/17/eng20030317_113397.shtml (accessed on March 18, 2003).
86. Tony Saich, Governance and Politics of China (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 123-24.
87. Larry Diamond, "The Rule of Law as Transition to Democracy in China," Journal of Contemporary China 12, no. 35 (May 2003): 319-31.
88. Wei Pan, "Toward a Consultative Rule of Law Regime in China," ibid., no. 34 (February 2003): 3-43.
89. Qing Yuan; "Dang lingdao xia de minzhu jiandu zhidu keyi baozhang renmin de hefa quanli" (A democratic supervisory system under the leadership of the party can safeguard the people's legitimate rights), posted in "Qiangguo luntan" at 13:42:57, March 6, 2003.
90. On electronic bulletin boards, participants may choose not to post a responding message but may instead simply observe a specific topic or issue.
91. "Renda gongzuo yaozai dang de lingdao xia buduan kaituo chuangxin" (Constantly expanding and innovating the work of the people's congress under the leadership of the party), Renmin ribao, March 12, 2003, 1, available at http://www.people.com.cn/GB/paper464/8678/812626.html (accessed on March 12, 2003).
92. See, for example, Michael E. Morell, "Citizens' Evaluations of Participatory Democratic Procedures: Normative Theory Meets Empirical Science," Political Research Quarterly 52, no. 2 (June 1999): 293-322.
93. Studies and surveys have pinpointed that the majority of Chinese Internet users come from urban, coastal, and economically better-off backgrounds and are generally young male intellectuals, with 85.1 percent of users being aged between 18-35 and 84 percent of users being high school and college graduates. See CNNIC, Semiannual Survey Report on the Development of China's Internet (October 1997-July 2003), http://www.cnnic.net.cn/develst/report.shtml (accessed on July 17, 2003).
94. Wang Xiaodong, "Hulianwang yu Zhongguo de sixiang duoyuanhua" (The Internet and thought pluralization in China), BBC Chinese Service (May 9, 2002), http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/chinese/chinanews/newsid_742000/7422391.stm (accessed on March 6, 2003); and Jin Mengyu, "Qiangguo luntan: toushi wenlu?" (The strong country forum: throwing a stone to clear the way?), Zhongguo xinwen zhoukan (China News Weekly), no. 23 (June 3, 2001), http://www.chinanews.com.cn/xinwenzhoukan/2001-23-50/txt/(6)%201.html (accessed on April 12, 2003). In addition, Caroline Straathof, a corporate executive of Sohu. com, has held that the people and society in the country are undercommunicated. Therefore, "the Internet's impact is bigger than in a country that already has fifty-seven news channels in killing taboos and taking up issues that were not discussed previously." See Caroline Straathof, "New Media and Democracy: Case Studies-China," in Are the New Media Good for Democracy? - Media Round Table Report (Stockholm: International IDEA, 2001), 23, available at http://www.idea.int/2001_forum/media/mrt_papers/round_table_report.pdf (accessed on May 15, 2002).
95. Wang Xiaodong, "Hulianwang yu Zhongguo de sixiang duoyuanhua" (The Internet and thought pluralization in China), BBC Chinese Service (May 9, 2002), http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/chinese/chinanews/newsid_742000/7422391.stm (accessed on March 6, 2003); and Jin Mengyu, "Qiangguo luntan: toushi wenlu?" (The strong country forum: throwing a stone to clear the way?), Zhongguo xinwen zhoukan (China News Weekly), no. 23 (June 3, 2001), http://www.chinanews.com.cn/xinwenzhoukan/2001-23-50/txt/(6)%201.html (accessed on April 12, 2003). In addition, Caroline Straathof, a corporate executive of Sohu. com, has held that the people and society in the country are undercommunicated. Therefore, "the Internet's impact is bigger than in a country that already has fifty-seven news channels in killing taboos and taking up issues that were not discussed previously." See Caroline Straathof, "New Media and Democracy: Case Studies-China," in Are the New Media Good for Democracy? - Media Round Table Report (Stockholm: International IDEA, 2001), 23, available at http://www.idea.int/2001_forum/media/mrt_papers/round_table_report.pdf (accessed on May 15, 2002).
96. Wang Xiaodong, "Hulianwang yu Zhongguo de sixiang duoyuanhua" (The Internet and thought pluralization in China), BBC Chinese Service (May 9, 2002), http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/chinese/chinanews/newsid_742000/7422391.stm (accessed on March 6, 2003); and Jin Mengyu, "Qiangguo luntan: toushi wenlu?" (The strong country forum: throwing a stone to clear the way?), Zhongguo xinwen zhoukan (China News Weekly), no. 23 (June 3, 2001), http://www.chinanews.com.cn/xinwenzhoukan/2001-23-50/txt/(6)%201.html (accessed on April 12, 2003). In addition, Caroline Straathof, a corporate executive of Sohu. com, has held that the people and society in the country are undercommunicated. Therefore, "the Internet's impact is bigger than in a country that already has fifty-seven news channels in killing taboos and taking up issues that were not discussed previously." See Caroline Straathof, "New Media and Democracy: Case Studies-China," in Are the New Media Good for Democracy? - Media Round Table Report (Stockholm: International IDEA, 2001), 23, available at http://www.idea.int/2001_forum/media/mrt_papers/round_table_report.pdf (accessed on May 15, 2002).
97. The argument is further supported by the most recent research report on Internet use in China which was released in mid-November 2003. The two-year project, conducted by the CASS, surveyed Internet usage and impact in twelve Chinese cities. Key findings include: (1) 71 percent of Internet users and 69 percent of non-users agreed that the Internet gives people more opportunities to express their political views; (2) 79 percent of Internet users and 77 percent of non-users agreed that the Internet gives people a better knowledge of politics; (3) 79 percent of Internet users and 73 percent of non-users agreed that the Internet will give the government a better understanding of the views of its citizens; and (4) 60.8 percent of Internet users and 61 percent of non-users agreed that the Internet gives people more opportunities to criticize government policies. See Guo Liang, "Surveying Internet Usage and Impact in Twelve Chinese Cities," The CASS Internet Report 2003 (Beijing: CASS Research Center for Social Development, 2003), 55-57; available at http://www.markle.org/news/parts.4_to_7.pdf (accessed on November 18, 2003).
98. See, for example, James Mulvenon and Stuart Johnson, You've Got Dissent! Chinese Dissident Use of the Internet and Beijing's Counter-Strategies (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2002).
99. See, for example, Jason Lacharite, "Electronic Decentralisation in China: A Critical Analysis of Internet Filtering Policies in the People's Republic of China," Australian Journal of Political Science 37, no. 2 (July 2002): 333-46.
100. See note 40 above.
101. Xueyi Chen and Tianjian Shi, "Media Effects on Political Confidence and Trust in the People's Republic of China in the Post-Tiananmen Period," East Asia 19, no. 63 (Fall 2001): 84-118.
102. In Yuezhi Zhao's words, it is termed "Party Journalism" -monolithic, positive, and highly predictable journalism that manipulates the spatial and temporal dimensions of news to suit the state agenda on certain issues. See Yuezhi Zhao, Media, Market, and Democracy in China: Between the Party Line and the Bottom Line (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 49.
103. "Hu Jintao zongshuji zhuchi zhaokai Zhonggong zhongyang zhengzhiju huiyi" (General Secretary Hu Jintao chaired the meeting of the Political Bureau of the CCP Central Committee), Xinhua wang, March 28, 2003, http://202.84.17.73:7777/Detail.wct? RecID=11& SelectID=1& ChannelID=4255&Page=1 (accessed on April 6, 2003). Further stress of the "three closes" can be seen, for example, in Li Zhangchun, "Cong 'San tie jin' rushou gaijin jiaqiang xuanchuan sixiang gongzuo" (Improve and strengthen propagandistic thought work through the "three closes"), Xinhua wang, May 20, 2003, http://202.84.17.73:7777/Detail.wct?RecID=6&SelectID=1&ChannelID= 4255&Page=1 (accessed on May 21, 2003).
104. "Hu Jintao zongshuji zhuchi zhaokai Zhonggong zhongyang zhengzhiju huiyi" (General Secretary Hu Jintao chaired the meeting of the Political Bureau of the CCP Central Committee), Xinhua wang, March 28, 2003, http://202.84.17.73:7777/Detail.wct? RecID=11& SelectID=1& ChannelID=4255&Page=1 (accessed on April 6, 2003). Further stress of the "three closes" can be seen, for example, in Li Zhangchun, "Cong 'San tie jin' rushou gaijin jiaqiang xuanchuan sixiang gongzuo" (Improve and strengthen propagandistic thought work through the "three closes"), Xinhua wang, May 20, 2003, http://202.84.17.73:7777/Detail.wct?RecID=6&SelectID=1&ChannelID= 4255&Page=1 (accessed on May 21, 2003).
105. "Mass Media Experts Comment on Coverage of NPC, CPPCC," People's Daily On-line, March 19, 2003, http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200303/19/eng20030319_11357.shtml (accessed on March 22, 2003).
106. Lianghui xinwen baodao jihua ( Guidelines for news report during the two sessions).
107. "Chenggong lianghui de chenggong fanying-Renmin ribao 2003 nian lianghui baodao jianshu" (The successful reflections of the successful two sessions-summary of news report of the People's Daily on the two sessions), Xinwen zhanxian, April 2003, http://www.snweb.com/gb/xw/2003/04/a0401005.htm (accessed on May 1, 2003).
108. See, for example, Joseph Fewsmith, "China's Response to SARS," China Leadership Monitor, no. 7 (Summer 2003), http://www.chinaleadershipmonitor.org/20033/jf.pdf (accessed on August 25, 2003).
109. John Gittings, "China Masks a Mass Poisoning: Reporting Ban on Deaths from Foodstall Breakfasts," The Guardian, September 16, 2002, http://www.guardian.co.uk/china/story/0,7369,792886,00.html (accessed on September 22, 2002); and Lara Wozniak, "Rumor Mills," Far Eastern Economic Review, April 24, 2003, 29.
110. John Gittings, "China Masks a Mass Poisoning: Reporting Ban on Deaths from Foodstall Breakfasts," The Guardian, September 16, 2002, http://www.guardian.co.uk/china/story/0,7369,792886,00.html (accessed on September 22, 2002); and Lara Wozniak, "Rumor Mills," Far Eastern Economic Review, April 24, 2003, 29.
111. Li Xiguang, "ICT and the Demise of Propaganda," Zhonghua chuamnei wang (Media China Net), May 19, 2003, http://academic.mediachina.net/lw_view.jsp?id=666 (accessed on May 19, 2003).
112. The term "yulun jiandu" was first raised in the CCP Central Committee's "Political Report" delivered to the Party's 13th Congress (1987) and consecutively repeated in the 14th (1992), 15th (1997), and 16th (2002) congresses. See Jiang Zemin, "Quanmian jianshe xiaokang shehui, kaichuang Zhongguo tese shehui zhuyi shiye xin jumian" (Building a comparatively well-off society in an all-round way and create a new situation in building socialism with Chinese characteristics), Ta Kung Pao (Hong Kong), November 9, 2002, http://www.takungpao.com/news/2002-11-9/16.con-72505.htm (accessed on November 14, 2002).
113. A growing number of Chinese media outlets have tried to make the most out of policy by probing the edges of the shifting official boundaries. As Chin-Chuan Lee has noted, "Many newspaper editors have confessed [to him and to others] that their front page endorses the planned economy, their second to eighth pages support the mixed economy, and their ninth to sixteenth pages advocate the market economy." See Chin-Chuan Lee, "Servants of the State or the Market?: Media and Journalists in China," in Media Occupations and Professions: A Reader, ed. Jeremy Tunstall (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 246. The Chinese authorities, however, have begun to require journalists to take re-assessment tests from 2003 onward, ensuring that the license system may make particularly the independent-thinking reporters toe the Party line. See Vivien Pik-Kwan Chan, "Mainland Journalists to Face Ideology Test," South China Morning Post, December 7, 2002.
114. A growing number of Chinese media outlets have tried to make the most out of policy by probing the edges of the shifting official boundaries. As Chin-Chuan Lee has noted, "Many newspaper editors have confessed [to him and to others] that their front page endorses the planned economy, their second to eighth pages support the mixed economy, and their ninth to sixteenth pages advocate the market economy." See Chin-Chuan Lee, "Servants of the State or the Market?: Media and Journalists in China," in Media Occupations and Professions: A Reader, ed. Jeremy Tunstall (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 246. The Chinese authorities, however, have begun to require journalists to take re-assessment tests from 2003 onward, ensuring that the license system may make particularly the independent-thinking reporters toe the Party line. See Vivien Pik-Kwan Chan, "Mainland Journalists to Face Ideology Test," South China Morning Post, December 7, 2002.
115. One of the characteristics of the NPC is that the deputies are normally not full-time legislators, which stands in stark contrast to the political systems in the Western democracies. By and large, being a member of the NPC in China is simply a side job. Primary occupations include judges, lawyers, party cadres, government officials, and so forth.
116. As an example, a message entitled "Renda daibiao qing bang women huyu: zhizhi shiye danwei lingdao ruci siyi gaige" (NPC deputies, please call upon leaders of enterprise units to stop their arbitrary reform), posted by "Dang diaomin haishi shunmin" at 22:02:00, March 24, 2003, revealed that several employees from a remote sensing corporation in Guangxi had called for the improvement of their pension and welfare system. See Wang Yougen, "Ben cheguansuo de fubai shili: heyi gan shi 'Renda' wei xingtong xushe?" (The power of corrupt officials-why do they dare to ignore NPC deputies?), at 18:15:56, March 7, 2003; and Dou Xueyuan, "Huyu baohu jubao gaoguan fubai de jubaoren" (Urging protection for those who unmask corrupt high-profile officials), at 12:31:11, March 5, 2003.
117. As an example, a message entitled "Renda daibiao qing bang women huyu: zhizhi shiye danwei lingdao ruci siyi gaige" (NPC deputies, please call upon leaders of enterprise units to stop their arbitrary reform), posted by "Dang diaomin haishi shunmin" at 22:02:00, March 24, 2003, revealed that several employees from a remote sensing corporation in Guangxi had called for the improvement of their pension and welfare system. See Wang Yougen, "Ben cheguansuo de fubai shili: heyi gan shi 'Renda' wei xingtong xushe?" (The power of corrupt officials-why do they dare to ignore NPC deputies?), at 18:15:56, March 7, 2003; and Dou Xueyuan, "Huyu baohu jubao gaoguan fubai de jubaoren" (Urging protection for those who unmask corrupt high-profile officials), at 12:31:11, March 5, 2003.
118. As an example, a message entitled "Renda daibiao qing bang women huyu: zhizhi shiye danwei lingdao ruci siyi gaige" (NPC deputies, please call upon leaders of enterprise units to stop their arbitrary reform), posted by "Dang diaomin haishi shunmin" at 22:02:00, March 24, 2003, revealed that several employees from a remote sensing corporation in Guangxi had called for the improvement of their pension and welfare system. See Wang Yougen, "Ben cheguansuo de fubai shili: heyi gan shi 'Renda' wei xingtong xushe?" (The power of corrupt officials-why do they dare to ignore NPC deputies?), at 18:15:56, March 7, 2003; and Dou Xueyuan, "Huyu baohu jubao gaoguan fubai de jubaoren" (Urging protection for those who unmask corrupt high-profile officials), at 12:31:11, March 5, 2003.
119. Andrew Stroehlein, "Internet Censors in China Loosening Their Grip," On-line Journalism Review, May 23, 2003, http://www.ojr.org/ojr/world_reports/1053660077.php (accessed on May 26, 2003).
120. Guobin Yang has conducted an ethnographic case study of "Huaxia zhiqing" based on his on-line participant observation and close contact with its collective management. He argues that "Huaxia zhiqing" is only one of many cases of the co-evolution of the Internet and civil society in contemporary China. Yang's case study reflects the challenges and dynamics of an incipient civil society. See Guobin Yang, "The Co-evolution of the Internet and Civil Society in China," Asian Survey 43, no. 3 (May/June 2003): 405-22.
121. It is arguable that every mass media outlet has to a varying degree had connections with the Communist Party and/or governments at all levels. In both theory and reality, the Party and/or government are their chief patrons, although the subsidies received from them are now in a decline partly because of the ongoing press reform measures and China's entry into the WTO.
122. See Peter Ferdinand and Chin-fu Hung, "The Internet, e-Social Capital, and Public Sphere - A Study of Qiangguo Luntan during the 16th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (November 2002)" (Paper presented at the conference on "China and the Internet: Technology, Economy, and Society in Transition" at the Annenberg School for Communication, University of Southern California, May 30-31, 2003). For the term "public sphere," see Jurgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge: Polity, 1989); and Jurgen Habermas, Between Facts and Norms (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996).
123. See Peter Ferdinand and Chin-fu Hung, "The Internet, e-Social Capital, and Public Sphere - A Study of Qiangguo Luntan during the 16th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (November 2002)" (Paper presented at the conference on "China and the Internet: Technology, Economy, and Society in Transition" at the Annenberg School for Communication, University of Southern California, May 30-31, 2003). For the term "public sphere," see Jurgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge: Polity, 1989); and Jurgen Habermas, Between Facts and Norms (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996).
124. See Peter Ferdinand and Chin-fu Hung, "The Internet, e-Social Capital, and Public Sphere - A Study of Qiangguo Luntan during the 16th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (November 2002)" (Paper presented at the conference on "China and the Internet: Technology, Economy, and Society in Transition" at the Annenberg School for Communication, University of Southern California, May 30-31, 2003). For the term "public sphere," see Jurgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge: Polity, 1989); and Jurgen Habermas, Between Facts and Norms (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996).
125. There are, of course, some messages that are "strongly" sympathetic to the government's agendas mirrored in Renmin ribao. Interestingly, they might adopt the old technique of dissidents in authoritarian regimes of overtly praising the regime, while in practice meaning the opposite. Apparently, regular visitors to chat rooms know how to read the messages. For example, a message posted by "Lü shi" on 3/7/2003 (10:18: 10) claims that "Ex-Premier Zhu Rongji is an honest and upright official. He is also a good official full of wisdom and stratagems. People will not forget you." Messages like this could very well mean the opposite.