Oral history of American science: A forty-year review

History of Science

Volumn 41, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 349-378

  Doel, Ronald E ^a  

^a OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 2442435733     PISSN: 00732753     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/007327530304100401     Document Type: Review

References (197)

1. Thomas S. Kuhn, John L. Heilbron, Paul Forman and Lini Allen, Sources for history of quantum physics: An inventory and report (Philadelphia, 1967), 4. Kuhn was describing what oral historians term "recall", distinct from polished and well-honed memories; for a discussion see Trevor Loomis, "Structure and validity in oral evidence", in Robert Perks and Alistair Thomson (eds), The oral history reader (London, 1998), 273-83.
2. Thomas S. Kuhn, John L. Heilbron, Paul Forman and Lini Allen, Sources for history of quantum physics: An inventory and report (Philadelphia, 1967), 4. Kuhn was describing what oral historians term "recall", distinct from polished and well-honed memories; for a discussion see Trevor Loomis, "Structure and validity in oral evidence", in Robert Perks and Alistair Thomson (eds), The oral history reader (London, 1998), 273-83.
3. See http://www.aip.org/history/nblbro.htm (reviewed July 2002).
4. No readily available catalogues of these interviews exist, however. In England and Canada, interview programs closely resemble those in the U.S.; see for example the polar project at the Scott Polar Research Institute of Cambridge University, detailed at http://www.spri.cam.ac.uk/photo/oral.htm.
5. James E. David, Conducting post-World War II national security research in executive branch records: A comprehensive guide (Westport, CT, 2001). On access restrictions to traditional archival sources, see George Lardner Jr, "DOE puts declassification into reverse", WA Post, 19 May 2001, A2; Tim Weiner, "Keeping the secrets that everyone knows", The NY Times, 30 October 1994, Sect. IV, 16; and Celestine Bohlen, "Whose history is it, anyway? The public's or the officials'?", The NY Times, 24 February 2002, 3. The National Security Archive, located at George WA University, has emerged as a clearinghouse for declassified U.S. documents; see http://www.gwu.edu/∼ nsarchiv/.
6. James E. David, Conducting post-World War II national security research in executive branch records: A comprehensive guide (Westport, CT, 2001). On access restrictions to traditional archival sources, see George Lardner Jr, "DOE puts declassification into reverse", WA Post, 19 May 2001, A2; Tim Weiner, "Keeping the secrets that everyone knows", The NY Times, 30 October 1994, Sect. IV, 16; and Celestine Bohlen, "Whose history is it, anyway? The public's or the officials'?", The NY Times, 24 February 2002, 3. The National Security Archive, located at George WA University, has emerged as a clearinghouse for declassified U.S. documents; see http://www.gwu.edu/∼ nsarchiv/.
7. James E. David, Conducting post-World War II national security research in executive branch records: A comprehensive guide (Westport, CT, 2001). On access restrictions to traditional archival sources, see George Lardner Jr, "DOE puts declassification into reverse", WA Post, 19 May 2001, A2; Tim Weiner, "Keeping the secrets that everyone knows", The NY Times, 30 October 1994, Sect. IV, 16; and Celestine Bohlen, "Whose history is it, anyway? The public's or the officials'?", The NY Times, 24 February 2002, 3. The National Security Archive, located at George WA University, has emerged as a clearinghouse for declassified U.S. documents; see http://www.gwu.edu/∼ nsarchiv/.
8. James E. David, Conducting post-World War II national security research in executive branch records: A comprehensive guide (Westport, CT, 2001). On access restrictions to traditional archival sources, see George Lardner Jr, "DOE puts declassification into reverse", WA Post, 19 May 2001, A2; Tim Weiner, "Keeping the secrets that everyone knows", The NY Times, 30 October 1994, Sect. IV, 16; and Celestine Bohlen, "Whose history is it, anyway? The public's or the officials'?", The NY Times, 24 February 2002, 3. The National Security Archive, located at George WA University, has emerged as a clearinghouse for declassified U.S. documents; see http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/.
9. William B. Provine, Sewall Wright and evolutionary biology (Chicago, 1986); Robert W. Smith et al., The space telescope: A study of NASA, science, technology, and politics (New York, 1989); Steven J. Dick, The biological universe: The twentieth century extraterrestrial life debate and the limits of science (New York, 1996); David H. DeVorkin, Science with a vengeance: The military origins of space science (New York, 1992); and Soraya de Chadarevian, Designs for life: Molecular biology after World War II (New York, 2002). A sizeable number of works merit inclusion here, among them Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on a life in medicine and science. An oral history memoir (Cambridge, MA, 1967); Joan Lisa Bromberg, The laser in America, 1950-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1991); David H. DeVorkin, Race to the stratosphere: Manned scientific ballooning in America (New York, 1989); Lillian Hoddeson et al., Critical assembly: A technical history of Los Alamos (New York, 1993); Howard E. McCurdy, The space station decision: Incremental politics and technological choice (Baltimore, 1990); and Silvan S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994).
10. William B. Provine, Sewall Wright and evolutionary biology (Chicago, 1986); Robert W. Smith et al., The space telescope: A study of NASA, science, technology, and politics (New York, 1989); Steven J. Dick, The biological universe: The twentieth century extraterrestrial life debate and the limits of science (New York, 1996); David H. DeVorkin, Science with a vengeance: The military origins of space science (New York, 1992); and Soraya de Chadarevian, Designs for life: Molecular biology after World War II (New York, 2002). A sizeable number of works merit inclusion here, among them Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on a life in medicine and science. An oral history memoir (Cambridge, MA, 1967); Joan Lisa Bromberg, The laser in America, 1950-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1991); David H. DeVorkin, Race to the stratosphere: Manned scientific ballooning in America (New York, 1989); Lillian Hoddeson et al., Critical assembly: A technical history of Los Alamos (New York, 1993); Howard E. McCurdy, The space station decision: Incremental politics and technological choice (Baltimore, 1990); and Silvan S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994).
11. William B. Provine, Sewall Wright and evolutionary biology (Chicago, 1986); Robert W. Smith et al., The space telescope: A study of NASA, science, technology, and politics (New York, 1989); Steven J. Dick, The biological universe: The twentieth century extraterrestrial life debate and the limits of science (New York, 1996); David H. DeVorkin, Science with a vengeance: The military origins of space science (New York, 1992); and Soraya de Chadarevian, Designs for life: Molecular biology after World War II (New York, 2002). A sizeable number of works merit inclusion here, among them Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on a life in medicine and science. An oral history memoir (Cambridge, MA, 1967); Joan Lisa Bromberg, The laser in America, 1950-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1991); David H. DeVorkin, Race to the stratosphere: Manned scientific ballooning in America (New York, 1989); Lillian Hoddeson et al., Critical assembly: A technical history of Los Alamos (New York, 1993); Howard E. McCurdy, The space station decision: Incremental politics and technological choice (Baltimore, 1990); and Silvan S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994).
12. William B. Provine, Sewall Wright and evolutionary biology (Chicago, 1986); Robert W. Smith et al., The space telescope: A study of NASA, science, technology, and politics (New York, 1989); Steven J. Dick, The biological universe: The twentieth century extraterrestrial life debate and the limits of science (New York, 1996); David H. DeVorkin, Science with a vengeance: The military origins of space science (New York, 1992); and Soraya de Chadarevian, Designs for life: Molecular biology after World War II (New York, 2002). A sizeable number of works merit inclusion here, among them Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on a life in medicine and science. An oral history memoir (Cambridge, MA, 1967); Joan Lisa Bromberg, The laser in America, 1950-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1991); David H. DeVorkin, Race to the stratosphere: Manned scientific ballooning in America (New York, 1989); Lillian Hoddeson et al., Critical assembly: A technical history of Los Alamos (New York, 1993); Howard E. McCurdy, The space station decision: Incremental politics and technological choice (Baltimore, 1990); and Silvan S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994).
13. William B. Provine, Sewall Wright and evolutionary biology (Chicago, 1986); Robert W. Smith et al., The space telescope: A study of NASA, science, technology, and politics (New York, 1989); Steven J. Dick, The biological universe: The twentieth century extraterrestrial life debate and the limits of science (New York, 1996); David H. DeVorkin, Science with a vengeance: The military origins of space science (New York, 1992); and Soraya de Chadarevian, Designs for life: Molecular biology after World War II (New York, 2002). A sizeable number of works merit inclusion here, among them Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on a life in medicine and science. An oral history memoir (Cambridge, MA, 1967); Joan Lisa Bromberg, The laser in America, 1950-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1991); David H. DeVorkin, Race to the stratosphere: Manned scientific ballooning in America (New York, 1989); Lillian Hoddeson et al., Critical assembly: A technical history of Los Alamos (New York, 1993); Howard E. McCurdy, The space station decision: Incremental politics and technological choice (Baltimore, 1990); and Silvan S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994).
14. William B. Provine, Sewall Wright and evolutionary biology (Chicago, 1986); Robert W. Smith et al., The space telescope: A study of NASA, science, technology, and politics (New York, 1989); Steven J. Dick, The biological universe: The twentieth century extraterrestrial life debate and the limits of science (New York, 1996); David H. DeVorkin, Science with a vengeance: The military origins of space science (New York, 1992); and Soraya de Chadarevian, Designs for life: Molecular biology after World War II (New York, 2002). A sizeable number of works merit inclusion here, among them Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on a life in medicine and science. An oral history memoir (Cambridge, MA, 1967); Joan Lisa Bromberg, The laser in America, 1950-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1991); David H. DeVorkin, Race to the stratosphere: Manned scientific ballooning in America (New York, 1989); Lillian Hoddeson et al., Critical assembly: A technical history of Los Alamos (New York, 1993); Howard E. McCurdy, The space station decision: Incremental politics and technological choice (Baltimore, 1990); and Silvan S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994).
15. William B. Provine, Sewall Wright and evolutionary biology (Chicago, 1986); Robert W. Smith et al., The space telescope: A study of NASA, science, technology, and politics (New York, 1989); Steven J. Dick, The biological universe: The twentieth century extraterrestrial life debate and the limits of science (New York, 1996); David H. DeVorkin, Science with a vengeance: The military origins of space science (New York, 1992); and Soraya de Chadarevian, Designs for life: Molecular biology after World War II (New York, 2002). A sizeable number of works merit inclusion here, among them Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on a life in medicine and science. An oral history memoir (Cambridge, MA, 1967); Joan Lisa Bromberg, The laser in America, 1950-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1991); David H. DeVorkin, Race to the stratosphere: Manned scientific ballooning in America (New York, 1989); Lillian Hoddeson et al., Critical assembly: A technical history of Los Alamos (New York, 1993); Howard E. McCurdy, The space station decision: Incremental politics and technological choice (Baltimore, 1990); and Silvan S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994).
16. William B. Provine, Sewall Wright and evolutionary biology (Chicago, 1986); Robert W. Smith et al., The space telescope: A study of NASA, science, technology, and politics (New York, 1989); Steven J. Dick, The biological universe: The twentieth century extraterrestrial life debate and the limits of science (New York, 1996); David H. DeVorkin, Science with a vengeance: The military origins of space science (New York, 1992); and Soraya de Chadarevian, Designs for life: Molecular biology after World War II (New York, 2002). A sizeable number of works merit inclusion here, among them Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on a life in medicine and science. An oral history memoir (Cambridge, MA, 1967); Joan Lisa Bromberg, The laser in America, 1950-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1991); David H. DeVorkin, Race to the stratosphere: Manned scientific ballooning in America (New York, 1989); Lillian Hoddeson et al., Critical assembly: A technical history of Los Alamos (New York, 1993); Howard E. McCurdy, The space station decision: Incremental politics and technological choice (Baltimore, 1990); and Silvan S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994).
17. William B. Provine, Sewall Wright and evolutionary biology (Chicago, 1986); Robert W. Smith et al., The space telescope: A study of NASA, science, technology, and politics (New York, 1989); Steven J. Dick, The biological universe: The twentieth century extraterrestrial life debate and the limits of science (New York, 1996); David H. DeVorkin, Science with a vengeance: The military origins of space science (New York, 1992); and Soraya de Chadarevian, Designs for life: Molecular biology after World War II (New York, 2002). A sizeable number of works merit inclusion here, among them Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on a life in medicine and science. An oral history memoir (Cambridge, MA, 1967); Joan Lisa Bromberg, The laser in America, 1950-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1991); David H. DeVorkin, Race to the stratosphere: Manned scientific ballooning in America (New York, 1989); Lillian Hoddeson et al., Critical assembly: A technical history of Los Alamos (New York, 1993); Howard E. McCurdy, The space station decision: Incremental politics and technological choice (Baltimore, 1990); and Silvan S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994).
18. William B. Provine, Sewall Wright and evolutionary biology (Chicago, 1986); Robert W. Smith et al., The space telescope: A study of NASA, science, technology, and politics (New York, 1989); Steven J. Dick, The biological universe: The twentieth century extraterrestrial life debate and the limits of science (New York, 1996); David H. DeVorkin, Science with a vengeance: The military origins of space science (New York, 1992); and Soraya de Chadarevian, Designs for life: Molecular biology after World War II (New York, 2002). A sizeable number of works merit inclusion here, among them Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on a life in medicine and science. An oral history memoir (Cambridge, MA, 1967); Joan Lisa Bromberg, The laser in America, 1950-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1991); David H. DeVorkin, Race to the stratosphere: Manned scientific ballooning in America (New York, 1989); Lillian Hoddeson et al., Critical assembly: A technical history of Los Alamos (New York, 1993); Howard E. McCurdy, The space station decision: Incremental politics and technological choice (Baltimore, 1990); and Silvan S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994).
19. William B. Provine, Sewall Wright and evolutionary biology (Chicago, 1986); Robert W. Smith et al., The space telescope: A study of NASA, science, technology, and politics (New York, 1989); Steven J. Dick, The biological universe: The twentieth century extraterrestrial life debate and the limits of science (New York, 1996); David H. DeVorkin, Science with a vengeance: The military origins of space science (New York, 1992); and Soraya de Chadarevian, Designs for life: Molecular biology after World War II (New York, 2002). A sizeable number of works merit inclusion here, among them Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on a life in medicine and science. An oral history memoir (Cambridge, MA, 1967); Joan Lisa Bromberg, The laser in America, 1950-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1991); David H. DeVorkin, Race to the stratosphere: Manned scientific ballooning in America (New York, 1989); Lillian Hoddeson et al., Critical assembly: A technical history of Los Alamos (New York, 1993); Howard E. McCurdy, The space station decision: Incremental politics and technological choice (Baltimore, 1990); and Silvan S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994).
20. Thomas F. Gieryn, Cultural boundaries of science: Credibility on the line (Chicago, 1999).
21. Alessandro Portelli, The battle of Valle Giula: Oral history and the art of the dialogue (Madison, 1997).
22. Dominick LaCapra, History and memory after Auschwitz (Ithaca, 1998), 20.
23. Ronald J. Grele, "Can anyone over thirty be trusted? A friendly critique of oral history", in Grele, Envelopes of sound: The art of oral history, 2nd edn, rev. and enlarged (New York, 1991), 196-211.
24. Paul R. Thompson, The voice of the past: Oral history, 2nd edn (Oxford, 1988), 21.
25. The American Historical Association has issued guidelines for the production and preservation of archival interviews; see "Statement on interviewing for historical documentation", available at http://www.theaha.org/pubs/standard.htm [website accessed 4 April 2003].
26. Though not without raising significant questions of professional responsibility and practice. The democratic impulse to make transcripts or sound recordings universally available has inevitably caused interview subjects to become more reticent and guarded. Traditional limits set by archival centres - such as allowing interviews to remain closed until the individual's death - created an immeasurably rich body of intimate historical materials through the mid-1990s. Simultaneously, archives often restricted access to qualified writers and scholars, discouraging indiscriminate requests for transcripts by disgruntled colleagues more interested in personal disputes than in writing historical narratives. What will be gained and lost by digital technologies is not yet clear.
27. For instance, the Naval Research Laboratory historian David van Keuren has begun classified interviews with Navy scientists about research begun after 1945, while recently declassified CIA records suggest that still-classified interviews were made (and likely continue to be) with leading Agency figures; see note on "CIA: H[illenkotter]/D[arling] interviews", OSI miscellaneous documents 48-53, RG 263, National Archives II, College Park, MD.
28. See A guide to the archival collections in the Niels Bohr Library, American Institute of Physics (International Catalog of Sources for History of Physics and Allied Sciences, Report No. 7, 1994, now available as a searchable database at www.aip.org/history). While many individual interviews can now be located through national registries of archival collections, such as the Research Libraries Information Network (RLIN), the need for a centralized catalogue of archival interviews in the history of science remains acute. Table 1, a current snapshot, remains the most comprehensive survey available. A number of new web portals now solicit recollections about the history of recent science without the direct involvement of historians, augmenting existing manuscript biographies. For one example, see the Memory Bank project in Science and Technology at George Mason University, accessed at http://echo.gmu.edu/memory/index.html.
29. See A guide to the archival collections in the Niels Bohr Library, American Institute of Physics (International Catalog of Sources for History of Physics and Allied Sciences, Report No. 7, 1994, now available as a searchable database at www.aip.org/history). While many individual interviews can now be located through national registries of archival collections, such as the Research Libraries Information Network (RLIN), the need for a centralized catalogue of archival interviews in the history of science remains acute. Table 1, a current snapshot, remains the most comprehensive survey available. A number of new web portals now solicit recollections about the history of recent science without the direct involvement of historians, augmenting existing manuscript biographies. For one example, see the Memory Bank project in Science and Technology at George Mason University, accessed at http://echo.gmu.edu/memory/index.html.
30. Saul Benison,"Introduction to Tom Rivers", in David K. Dunaway and Willa K. Baum, Oral history: An interdisciplinary anthology (Nashville, TN, 1984), 124-30, and Kuhn et al., op. cit. (ref. 1), especially pp. 3-6, 150-1. The role of oral history in creating traditional collections for individual scientists is discussed in Spencer R. Weart and David H. DeVorkin, "Interviews as sources for history of modern astrophysics", Isis, lxxii (1981), 471-6, and David H. DeVorkin, "Interviewing physicists and astronomers: Methods of oral history", in John Roche (ed.), Physicists look back: Studies in the history of physics (London, 1990), 44-65.
31. Saul Benison,"Introduction to Tom Rivers", in David K. Dunaway and Willa K. Baum, Oral history: An interdisciplinary anthology (Nashville, TN, 1984), 124-30, and Kuhn et al., op. cit. (ref. 1), especially pp. 3-6, 150-1. The role of oral history in creating traditional collections for individual scientists is discussed in Spencer R. Weart and David H. DeVorkin, "Interviews as sources for history of modern astrophysics", Isis, lxxii (1981), 471-6, and David H. DeVorkin, "Interviewing physicists and astronomers: Methods of oral history", in John Roche (ed.), Physicists look back: Studies in the history of physics (London, 1990), 44-65.
32. Saul Benison,"Introduction to Tom Rivers", in David K. Dunaway and Willa K. Baum, Oral history: An interdisciplinary anthology (Nashville, TN, 1984), 124-30, and Kuhn et al., op. cit. (ref. 1), especially pp. 3-6, 150-1. The role of oral history in creating traditional collections for individual scientists is discussed in Spencer R. Weart and David H. DeVorkin, "Interviews as sources for history of modern astrophysics", Isis, lxxii (1981), 471-6, and David H. DeVorkin, "Interviewing physicists and astronomers: Methods of oral history", in John Roche (ed.), Physicists look back: Studies in the history of physics (London, 1990), 44-65.
33. Saul Benison,"Introduction to Tom Rivers", in David K. Dunaway and Willa K. Baum, Oral history: An interdisciplinary anthology (Nashville, TN, 1984), 124-30, and Kuhn et al., op. cit. (ref. 1), especially pp. 3-6, 150-1. The role of oral history in creating traditional collections for individual scientists is discussed in Spencer R. Weart and David H. DeVorkin, "Interviews as sources for history of modern astrophysics", Isis, lxxii (1981), 471-6, and David H. DeVorkin, "Interviewing physicists and astronomers: Methods of oral history", in John Roche (ed.), Physicists look back: Studies in the history of physics (London, 1990), 44-65.
34. Michael A. Dennis, "Historiography of science: An American perspective", in John Krige and Dominique Pestre (eds), Science in the twentieth century (Amsterdam, 1997), 1-26; Jan Golinski, Making natural knowledge: Constructivism and the history of science (Cambridge, 1998); and Helge Kragh, An introduction to the historiography of science (Cambridge, 1987).
35. Michael A. Dennis, "Historiography of science: An American perspective", in John Krige and Dominique Pestre (eds), Science in the twentieth century (Amsterdam, 1997), 1-26; Jan Golinski, Making natural knowledge: Constructivism and the history of science (Cambridge, 1998); and Helge Kragh, An introduction to the historiography of science (Cambridge, 1987).
36. Michael A. Dennis, "Historiography of science: An American perspective", in John Krige and Dominique Pestre (eds), Science in the twentieth century (Amsterdam, 1997), 1-26; Jan Golinski, Making natural knowledge: Constructivism and the history of science (Cambridge, 1998); and Helge Kragh, An introduction to the historiography of science (Cambridge, 1987).
37. David K. Dunaway and Willa K. Baum, "Preface", in Dunaway and Baum, op. cit. (ref. 15), pp. xiii-xvii, and Ronald J. Grele, "Movement without aim: Methodological and theoretical problems in oral history", op. cit. (ref. 9), 126-55.
38. David K. Dunaway and Willa K. Baum, "Preface", in Dunaway and Baum, op. cit. (ref. 15), pp. xiii-xvii, and Ronald J. Grele, "Movement without aim: Methodological and theoretical problems in oral history", op. cit. (ref. 9), 126-55.
39. See Nancy Tomes, "Oral history and the history of medicine", Journal of American history, lxxviii (1991), 607-17; Joan Warnow-Blewett, "Documenting recent science: Progress and needs", Osiris, 2nd ser., vii (1992), 267-98; Weart and DeVorkin, op. cit. (ref. 15); Charles Weiner, "Oral history of science: A mushrooming cloud?", Journal of American history, lxxv (1988), 548-59; and Soraya de Chadarevian, "Using interviews to write the history of science", in Thomas Söderqvist (ed.), The historiography of contemporary science and technology (Amsterdam, 1997), 51-70.
40. See Nancy Tomes, "Oral history and the history of medicine", Journal of American history, lxxviii (1991), 607-17; Joan Warnow-Blewett, "Documenting recent science: Progress and needs", Osiris, 2nd ser., vii (1992), 267-98; Weart and DeVorkin, op. cit. (ref. 15); Charles Weiner, "Oral history of science: A mushrooming cloud?", Journal of American history, lxxv (1988), 548-59; and Soraya de Chadarevian, "Using interviews to write the history of science", in Thomas Söderqvist (ed.), The historiography of contemporary science and technology (Amsterdam, 1997), 51-70.
41. See Nancy Tomes, "Oral history and the history of medicine", Journal of American history, lxxviii (1991), 607-17; Joan Warnow-Blewett, "Documenting recent science: Progress and needs", Osiris, 2nd ser., vii (1992), 267-98; Weart and DeVorkin, op. cit. (ref. 15); Charles Weiner, "Oral history of science: A mushrooming cloud?", Journal of American history, lxxv (1988), 548-59; and Soraya de Chadarevian, "Using interviews to write the history of science", in Thomas Söderqvist (ed.), The historiography of contemporary science and technology (Amsterdam, 1997), 51-70.
42. See Nancy Tomes, "Oral history and the history of medicine", Journal of American history, lxxviii (1991), 607-17; Joan Warnow-Blewett, "Documenting recent science: Progress and needs", Osiris, 2nd ser., vii (1992), 267-98; Weart and DeVorkin, op. cit. (ref. 15); Charles Weiner, "Oral history of science: A mushrooming cloud?", Journal of American history, lxxv (1988), 548-59; and Soraya de Chadarevian, "Using interviews to write the history of science", in Thomas Söderqvist (ed.), The historiography of contemporary science and technology (Amsterdam, 1997), 51-70.
43. See Nancy Tomes, "Oral history and the history of medicine", Journal of American history, lxxviii (1991), 607-17; Joan Warnow-Blewett, "Documenting recent science: Progress and needs", Osiris, 2nd ser., vii (1992), 267-98; Weart and DeVorkin, op. cit. (ref. 15); Charles Weiner, "Oral history of science: A mushrooming cloud?", Journal of American history, lxxv (1988), 548-59; and Soraya de Chadarevian, "Using interviews to write the history of science", in Thomas Söderqvist (ed.), The historiography of contemporary science and technology (Amsterdam, 1997), 51-70.
44. This trend is evident in Peter Galison, "Introduction: The many faces of big science", in Peter Galison and Bruce Hevly (eds), Big science: The growth of large-scale research (Stanford, 1992), 1-17; John W. Servos, "Research schools and their histories", Osiris, 2nd ser., viii (1993), 3-15; and Albert Van Helden and Thomas L. Hankins, "Introduction: Instruments in the history of science", Osiris, 2nd ser., ix (1994), 1-6.
45. This trend is evident in Peter Galison, "Introduction: The many faces of big science", in Peter Galison and Bruce Hevly (eds), Big science: The growth of large-scale research (Stanford, 1992), 1-17; John W. Servos, "Research schools and their histories", Osiris, 2nd ser., viii (1993), 3-15; and Albert Van Helden and Thomas L. Hankins, "Introduction: Instruments in the history of science", Osiris, 2nd ser., ix (1994), 1-6.
46. This trend is evident in Peter Galison, "Introduction: The many faces of big science", in Peter Galison and Bruce Hevly (eds), Big science: The growth of large-scale research (Stanford, 1992), 1-17; John W. Servos, "Research schools and their histories", Osiris, 2nd ser., viii (1993), 3-15; and Albert Van Helden and Thomas L. Hankins, "Introduction: Instruments in the history of science", Osiris, 2nd ser., ix (1994), 1-6.
47. Gerald J. Holton, Thematic origins of scientific revolutions (Cambridge, MA, 1988), 120-2.
48. William Glen (ed.), The mass-extinction controversy: How science works in a crisis (Stanford, 1994).
49. Weiner, op. cit. (ref. 18), 548.
50. Tomes, op. cit. (ref. 18), 608-13.
51. Alex Soojung-Kim Pang, "Oral history and the history of science", International journal of oral history, x (1989), 270-85, p. 278. When Pang's article appeared, several historians and sociologists of science were already engaged in interview programs employing this approach; see the Study of Multi-Institutional Collaborations in Space Science and Geophysics (Center for History of Physics, American Institute of Physics, 1986-1994), available online at http: //www.aip.org/history/pubs1st.htm#collabs, and the Smithsonian Videohistory Interview Project; for a sociological perspective see Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes. and lifetimes: The world of high energy physicists (Cambridge, MA, 1988).
52. Alex Soojung-Kim Pang, "Oral history and the history of science", International journal of oral history, x (1989), 270-85, p. 278. When Pang's article appeared, several historians and sociologists of science were already engaged in interview programs employing this approach; see the Study of Multi-Institutional Collaborations in Space Science and Geophysics (Center for History of Physics, American Institute of Physics, 1986-1994), available online at http: //www.aip.org/history/pubs1st.htm#collabs, and the Smithsonian Videohistory Interview Project; for a sociological perspective see Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes. and lifetimes: The world of high energy physicists (Cambridge, MA, 1988).
53. Alex Soojung-Kim Pang, "Oral history and the history of science", International journal of oral history, x (1989), 270-85, p. 278. When Pang's article appeared, several historians and sociologists of science were already engaged in interview programs employing this approach; see the Study of Multi-Institutional Collaborations in Space Science and Geophysics (Center for History of Physics, American Institute of Physics, 1986-1994), available online at http: //www.aip.org/history/pubs1st.htm#collabs, and the Smithsonian Videohistory Interview Project; for a sociological perspective see Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes. and lifetimes: The world of high energy physicists (Cambridge, MA, 1988).
54. Quoted in Mott Greene, "Editorial", Earth sciences history, xiii (1994), 2. For Heilbron and Kuhn, see Kuhn et al., op. cit. (ref. 1), 5.
55. Quoted in Mott Greene, "Editorial", Earth sciences history, xiii (1994), 2. For Heilbron and Kuhn, see Kuhn et al., op. cit. (ref. 1), 5.
56. See for example Finn Aaserud, Redirecting science: Niels Bohr, philanthropy, and the rise of nuclear physics (Cambridge, 1990); Dick, op. cit. (ref. 5); David C. Cassidy, Uncertainty: The life and science of Werner Heisenberg (New York, 1992); James Hershberg, James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima and the making of the nuclear age (New York, 1993); and John Lankford, with the assistance of Rickey Slavings, Community, careers, and power: American astronomy 1859-1940 (Chicago, 1997). Moreover, six of ten research articles published in vol. vii (1992) of Osiris, 2nd ser., dedicated to science after 1940, included at least one reference to interviews as sources.
57. See for example Finn Aaserud, Redirecting science: Niels Bohr, philanthropy, and the rise of nuclear physics (Cambridge, 1990); Dick, op. cit. (ref. 5); David C. Cassidy, Uncertainty: The life and science of Werner Heisenberg (New York, 1992); James Hershberg, James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima and the making of the nuclear age (New York, 1993); and John Lankford, with the assistance of Rickey Slavings, Community, careers, and power: American astronomy 1859-1940 (Chicago, 1997). Moreover, six of ten research articles published in vol. vii (1992) of Osiris, 2nd ser., dedicated to science after 1940, included at least one reference to interviews as sources.
58. See for example Finn Aaserud, Redirecting science: Niels Bohr, philanthropy, and the rise of nuclear physics (Cambridge, 1990); Dick, op. cit. (ref. 5); David C. Cassidy, Uncertainty: The life and science of Werner Heisenberg (New York, 1992); James Hershberg, James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima and the making of the nuclear age (New York, 1993); and John Lankford, with the assistance of Rickey Slavings, Community, careers, and power: American astronomy 1859-1940 (Chicago, 1997). Moreover, six of ten research articles published in vol. vii (1992) of Osiris, 2nd ser., dedicated to science after 1940, included at least one reference to interviews as sources.
59. See for example Finn Aaserud, Redirecting science: Niels Bohr, philanthropy, and the rise of nuclear physics (Cambridge, 1990); Dick, op. cit. (ref. 5); David C. Cassidy, Uncertainty: The life and science of Werner Heisenberg (New York, 1992); James Hershberg, James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima and the making of the nuclear age (New York, 1993); and John Lankford, with the assistance of Rickey Slavings, Community, careers, and power: American astronomy 1859-1940 (Chicago, 1997). Moreover, six of ten research articles published in vol. vii (1992) of Osiris, 2nd ser., dedicated to science after 1940, included at least one reference to interviews as sources.
60. See for example Finn Aaserud, Redirecting science: Niels Bohr, philanthropy, and the rise of nuclear physics (Cambridge, 1990); Dick, op. cit. (ref. 5); David C. Cassidy, Uncertainty: The life and science of Werner Heisenberg (New York, 1992); James Hershberg, James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima and the making of the nuclear age (New York, 1993); and John Lankford, with the assistance of Rickey Slavings, Community, careers, and power: American astronomy 1859-1940 (Chicago, 1997). Moreover, six of ten research articles published in vol. vii (1992) of Osiris, 2nd ser., dedicated to science after 1940, included at least one reference to interviews as sources.
61. Lillian Hoddeson, The rise of the standard model: Particle physics in the 1960s and 1970s (New York, 1997); Nathaniel C. Comfort, The tangled field: Barbara McClintock's search for the patterns of genetic control (Cambridge, MA, 2001); and Daniel J. Kevles, The physicists: The history of a scientific community in modern America (Cambridge, MA, 1995).
62. Lillian Hoddeson, The rise of the standard model: Particle physics in the 1960s and 1970s (New York, 1997); Nathaniel C. Comfort, The tangled field: Barbara McClintock's search for the patterns of genetic control (Cambridge, MA, 2001); and Daniel J. Kevles, The physicists: The history of a scientific community in modern America (Cambridge, MA, 1995).
63. Lillian Hoddeson, The rise of the standard model: Particle physics in the 1960s and 1970s (New York, 1997); Nathaniel C. Comfort, The tangled field: Barbara McClintock's search for the patterns of genetic control (Cambridge, MA, 2001); and Daniel J. Kevles, The physicists: The history of a scientific community in modern America (Cambridge, MA, 1995).
64. John Lankford and Rickey Slavings, "Gender and science: Women in American astronomy, 1859-1940", Physics today, xliii (1990), 58-65, p. 61. Further discussion on this point is found in Tomes, op. cit. (ref. 18), 610 and in Margaret Rossiter, Women scientists in America: Struggles and strategies to 1940 (Baltimore, 1982), pp. xv-xviii.
65. John Lankford and Rickey Slavings, "Gender and science: Women in American astronomy, 1859-1940", Physics today, xliii (1990), 58-65, p. 61. Further discussion on this point is found in Tomes, op. cit. (ref. 18), 610 and in Margaret Rossiter, Women scientists in America: Struggles and strategies to 1940 (Baltimore, 1982), pp. xv-xviii.
66. John Lankford and Rickey Slavings, "Gender and science: Women in American astronomy, 1859-1940", Physics today, xliii (1990), 58-65, p. 61. Further discussion on this point is found in Tomes, op. cit. (ref. 18), 610 and in Margaret Rossiter, Women scientists in America: Struggles and strategies to 1940 (Baltimore, 1982), pp. xv-xviii.
67. This framework question set is available at http://www.aip.org/history/ohi/ohi_questions.htm.
68. James Hopwood Jeans, The universe around us (New York, 1933); Thomas William Webb, Celestial objects for common telescopes (London, 1898); and Camille Flammarion, Stories of infinity: Lumen, history of a comet, in infinity (Boston, 1873). These works were cited for instance in oral history interviews with Ralph B. Baldwin (Doel, 25 October 1989), Horace W. Babcock (David H. DeVorkin, 25 July 1977), Frank K. Edmondson, (DeVorkin, 21 April 1977), Jesse Greenstein (Spencer R. Weart, 7 April 1977), Helen Sawyer Hogg (DeVorkin, 4 August 1979), and Lyman Spitzer, Jr (DeVorkin, 7 April 1977), all SHMA, Center for History of Physics, AIP. On Frost's youthful interest in astronomy, see Lawrance Roger Thompson, Robert Frost [vol. i] (New York, 1966), 91, 92, and 116. I thank Charlie Morrissey for discussions on this point.
69. James Hopwood Jeans, The universe around us (New York, 1933); Thomas William Webb, Celestial objects for common telescopes (London, 1898); and Camille Flammarion, Stories of infinity: Lumen, history of a comet, in infinity (Boston, 1873). These works were cited for instance in oral history interviews with Ralph B. Baldwin (Doel, 25 October 1989), Horace W. Babcock (David H. DeVorkin, 25 July 1977), Frank K. Edmondson, (DeVorkin, 21 April 1977), Jesse Greenstein (Spencer R. Weart, 7 April 1977), Helen Sawyer Hogg (DeVorkin, 4 August 1979), and Lyman Spitzer, Jr (DeVorkin, 7 April 1977), all SHMA, Center for History of Physics, AIP. On Frost's youthful interest in astronomy, see Lawrance Roger Thompson, Robert Frost [vol. i] (New York, 1966), 91, 92, and 116. I thank Charlie Morrissey for discussions on this point.
70. James Hopwood Jeans, The universe around us (New York, 1933); Thomas William Webb, Celestial objects for common telescopes (London, 1898); and Camille Flammarion, Stories of infinity: Lumen, history of a comet, in infinity (Boston, 1873). These works were cited for instance in oral history interviews with Ralph B. Baldwin (Doel, 25 October 1989), Horace W. Babcock (David H. DeVorkin, 25 July 1977), Frank K. Edmondson, (DeVorkin, 21 April 1977), Jesse Greenstein (Spencer R. Weart, 7 April 1977), Helen Sawyer Hogg (DeVorkin, 4 August 1979), and Lyman Spitzer, Jr (DeVorkin, 7 April 1977), all SHMA, Center for History of Physics, AIP. On Frost's youthful interest in astronomy, see Lawrance Roger Thompson, Robert Frost [vol. i] (New York, 1966), 91, 92, and 116. I thank Charlie Morrissey for discussions on this point.
71. James Hopwood Jeans, The universe around us (New York, 1933); Thomas William Webb, Celestial objects for common telescopes (London, 1898); and Camille Flammarion, Stories of infinity: Lumen, history of a comet, in infinity (Boston, 1873). These works were cited for instance in oral history interviews with Ralph B. Baldwin (Doel, 25 October 1989), Horace W. Babcock (David H. DeVorkin, 25 July 1977), Frank K. Edmondson, (DeVorkin, 21 April 1977), Jesse Greenstein (Spencer R. Weart, 7 April 1977), Helen Sawyer Hogg (DeVorkin, 4 August 1979), and Lyman Spitzer, Jr (DeVorkin, 7 April 1977), all SHMA, Center for History of Physics, AIP. On Frost's youthful interest in astronomy, see Lawrance Roger Thompson, Robert Frost [vol. i] (New York, 1966), 91, 92, and 116. I thank Charlie Morrissey for discussions on this point.
72. Alessandro Portelli, The death of Luigi Trastulli and other stories (Albany, NY, 1991), 59-76, and Trevor Lummis, "Structure and validity in oral evidence", in Robert Perks and Alistair Thomson (eds), The oral history reader (London, 1998), 273-83, especially p. 282.
73. Alessandro Portelli, The death of Luigi Trastulli and other stories (Albany, NY, 1991), 59-76, and Trevor Lummis, "Structure and validity in oral evidence", in Robert Perks and Alistair Thomson (eds), The oral history reader (London, 1998), 273-83, especially p. 282.
74. More than a dozen interviews have been conducted under the auspices of the Survey Project in the History of Geophysics to date, including with M. King Hubbert, J. Tuzo Wilson, and John Verhoogen. See for instance Eugene M. Shoemaker oral history interview [hereafter OHI] (30 January 1986), Harold Masursky OHI (18 and 19 June 1987), M. King Hubbert OHI (4 and 6 January 1989), Don Wilhelms OHI (June 1987), Robert Sharp OHI (April 1990), all by Doel, Survey Project in History of Geophysics, Center for History of Physics, AIP.
75. Orson Anderson OHI (Doel, November 1993, History of Geophysics, AIP). What is known about the early religious experiences of scientists typically comes from autobiographies and memorial reviews; a recent instance is E. O. Wilson, Naturalist (Washington, DC, 1994), especially pp. 33-46.
76. M. King Hubbert OHI (Doel, 4 January 1989, 22-23 January and 6 February 1989), at AIP, quoted on p. 430; see also Claude C. Albritton, Philosophy of geology (Dallas, 1963) and Claude C. Albritton (ed.), Uniformity and simplicity: A symposium on the principle of uniformity in nature (New York, 1967). General histories of twentieth-century geology remain lacking, but a helpful overview is Peter J. Bowler, The Norton history of the environmental sciences (New York, 1993), 379-427. Biographical details on Hubbert are found in the Handbook of Texas Online, at http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/HH/fhu85.html and Kenneth S. Deffeyes, Hubbert's peak: The impending world oil shortage (Princeton, 2001). Hubbert's archival collection at the American Heritage Center of the University of Wyoming, while extraordinarily rich, provides limited insight on these issues.
77. M. King Hubbert OHI (Doel, 4 January 1989, 22-23 January and 6 February 1989), at AIP, quoted on p. 430; see also Claude C. Albritton, Philosophy of geology (Dallas, 1963) and Claude C. Albritton (ed.), Uniformity and simplicity: A symposium on the principle of uniformity in nature (New York, 1967). General histories of twentieth-century geology remain lacking, but a helpful overview is Peter J. Bowler, The Norton history of the environmental sciences (New York, 1993), 379-427. Biographical details on Hubbert are found in the Handbook of Texas Online, at http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/HH/fhu85.html and Kenneth S. Deffeyes, Hubbert's peak: The impending world oil shortage (Princeton, 2001). Hubbert's archival collection at the American Heritage Center of the University of Wyoming, while extraordinarily rich, provides limited insight on these issues.
78. M. King Hubbert OHI (Doel, 4 January 1989, 22-23 January and 6 February 1989), at AIP, quoted on p. 430; see also Claude C. Albritton, Philosophy of geology (Dallas, 1963) and Claude C. Albritton (ed.), Uniformity and simplicity: A symposium on the principle of uniformity in nature (New York, 1967). General histories of twentieth-century geology remain lacking, but a helpful overview is Peter J. Bowler, The Norton history of the environmental sciences (New York, 1993), 379-427. Biographical details on Hubbert are found in the Handbook of Texas Online, at http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/HH/fhu85.html and Kenneth S. Deffeyes, Hubbert's peak: The impending world oil shortage (Princeton, 2001). Hubbert's archival collection at the American Heritage Center of the University of Wyoming, while extraordinarily rich, provides limited insight on these issues.
79. M. King Hubbert OHI (Doel, 4 January 1989, 22-23 January and 6 February 1989), at AIP, quoted on p. 430; see also Claude C. Albritton, Philosophy of geology (Dallas, 1963) and Claude C. Albritton (ed.), Uniformity and simplicity: A symposium on the principle of uniformity in nature (New York, 1967). General histories of twentieth-century geology remain lacking, but a helpful overview is Peter J. Bowler, The Norton history of the environmental sciences (New York, 1993), 379-427. Biographical details on Hubbert are found in the Handbook of Texas Online, at http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/HH/fhu85.html and Kenneth S. Deffeyes, Hubbert's peak: The impending world oil shortage (Princeton, 2001). Hubbert's archival collection at the American Heritage Center of the University of Wyoming, while extraordinarily rich, provides limited insight on these issues.
80. M. King Hubbert OHI (Doel, 4 January 1989, 22-23 January and 6 February 1989), at AIP, quoted on p. 430; see also Claude C. Albritton, Philosophy of geology (Dallas, 1963) and Claude C. Albritton (ed.), Uniformity and simplicity: A symposium on the principle of uniformity in nature (New York, 1967). General histories of twentieth-century geology remain lacking, but a helpful overview is Peter J. Bowler, The Norton history of the environmental sciences (New York, 1993), 379-427. Biographical details on Hubbert are found in the Handbook of Texas Online, at http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/HH/fhu85.html and Kenneth S. Deffeyes, Hubbert's peak: The impending world oil shortage (Princeton, 2001). Hubbert's archival collection at the American Heritage Center of the University of Wyoming, while extraordinarily rich, provides limited insight on these issues.
81. M. King Hubbert OHI (Doel, 4 January 1989, 22-23 January and 6 February 1989), at AIP, quoted on p. 430; see also Claude C. Albritton, Philosophy of geology (Dallas, 1963) and Claude C. Albritton (ed.), Uniformity and simplicity: A symposium on the principle of uniformity in nature (New York, 1967). General histories of twentieth-century geology remain lacking, but a helpful overview is Peter J. Bowler, The Norton history of the environmental sciences (New York, 1993), 379-427. Biographical details on Hubbert are found in the Handbook of Texas Online, at http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/HH/fhu85.html and Kenneth S. Deffeyes, Hubbert's peak: The impending world oil shortage (Princeton, 2001). Hubbert's archival collection at the American Heritage Center of the University of Wyoming, while extraordinarily rich, provides limited insight on these issues.
82. Kathryn M. Olesko, "Tacit knowledge and school formation", Osiris, 2nd ser., viii (1993), 16-29; this issue is also treated in Pamela M. Henson and Terri A. Schorzman, "Videohistory: Focusing on the American past", Journal of American history, lxxviii (1991), 618-27, and Terri A. Schorzman (ed.), A practical introduction to videohistory: The Smithsonian Institution and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation experiment (Malabar, FL, 1993).
83. Kathryn M. Olesko, "Tacit knowledge and school formation", Osiris, 2nd ser., viii (1993), 16-29; this issue is also treated in Pamela M. Henson and Terri A. Schorzman, "Videohistory: Focusing on the American past", Journal of American history, lxxviii (1991), 618-27, and Terri A. Schorzman (ed.), A practical introduction to videohistory: The Smithsonian Institution and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation experiment (Malabar, FL, 1993).
84. Kathryn M. Olesko, "Tacit knowledge and school formation", Osiris, 2nd ser., viii (1993), 16-29; this issue is also treated in Pamela M. Henson and Terri A. Schorzman, "Videohistory: Focusing on the American past", Journal of American history, lxxviii (1991), 618-27, and Terri A. Schorzman (ed.), A practical introduction to videohistory: The Smithsonian Institution and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation experiment (Malabar, FL, 1993).
85. Weiner, op. cit. (ref. 18), 554-5, and "Major Smithsonian Institution oral history collections catalogued", AIP History Center newsletter (Spring 1994), 12-13, 19.
86. Weiner, op. cit. (ref. 18), 554-5, and "Major Smithsonian Institution oral history collections catalogued", AIP History Center newsletter (Spring 1994), 12-13, 19.
87. Handbook of Texas Online (ref. 34), Harold Masursky OHI (Doel, 18 June 1987) and M. King Hubbert OHI (Doel, January and February 1989 inclusive), both Survey Project in the History of Geophysics, AIP.
88. Harold Masursky OHI (Doel, 16 and 17 June 1987, Sources for History of Modern Geophysics at AIP); Robert Dort, "Is our discipline different from the history of other sciences?", Penrose conference on History of the Earth Sciences, San Diego, 21 March 1994; and Robert E. Kohler, "Place and practice in field biology", History of science, xl (2002), 189-210.
89. Harold Masursky OHI (Doel, 16 and 17 June 1987, Sources for History of Modern Geophysics at AIP); Robert Dort, "Is our discipline different from the history of other sciences?", Penrose conference on History of the Earth Sciences, San Diego, 21 March 1994; and Robert E. Kohler, "Place and practice in field biology", History of science, xl (2002), 189-210.
90. Harold Masursky OHI (Doel, 16 and 17 June 1987, Sources for History of Modern Geophysics at AIP); Robert Dort, "Is our discipline different from the history of other sciences?", Penrose conference on History of the Earth Sciences, San Diego, 21 March 1994; and Robert E. Kohler, "Place and practice in field biology", History of science, xl (2002), 189-210.
91. Hershberg, op. cit. (ref. 26); David H. DeVorkin, Henry Norris Russell: Dean of American astronomers (Princeton, 2000); and Keay Davidson, Carl Sagan: A life (New York, 1999).
92. Hershberg, op. cit. (ref. 26); David H. DeVorkin, Henry Norris Russell: Dean of American astronomers (Princeton, 2000); and Keay Davidson, Carl Sagan: A life (New York, 1999).
93. Hershberg, op. cit. (ref. 26); David H. DeVorkin, Henry Norris Russell: Dean of American astronomers (Princeton, 2000); and Keay Davidson, Carl Sagan: A life (New York, 1999).
94. Thomas Söderqvist, "The architecture of a biographical pathway", Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences, xxv (1994), 165-75, and Söderqvist, "Virtue ethics and the historiography of science", Danish yearbook of philosophy, xxxii (1997), 45-64.
95. Thomas Söderqvist, "The architecture of a biographical pathway", Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences, xxv (1994), 165-75, and Söderqvist, "Virtue ethics and the historiography of science", Danish yearbook of philosophy, xxxii (1997), 45-64.
96. Gerald L. Geison, "Scientific change, emerging specialties, and research schools", History of science, xix (1981), 20-40, p. 27. Geison's article was stimulated by the publication of David O. Edge and Michael Mulkay's Astronomy transformed: The emergence of radio astronomy in Britain (New York, 1976), which explicitly employed models of branching and networks to account for innovation in science. Gerald L. Geison and Frederic L. Holmes, Research schools: Historical reappraisals (Osiris, 2nd ser., viii (1993)) remains the most comprehensive review of research schools to date.
97. Gerald L. Geison, "Scientific change, emerging specialties, and research schools", History of science, xix (1981), 20-40, p. 27. Geison's article was stimulated by the publication of David O. Edge and Michael Mulkay's Astronomy transformed: The emergence of radio astronomy in Britain (New York, 1976), which explicitly employed models of branching and networks to account for innovation in science. Gerald L. Geison and Frederic L. Holmes, Research schools: Historical reappraisals (Osiris, 2nd ser., viii (1993)) remains the most comprehensive review of research schools to date.
98. Gerald L. Geison, "Scientific change, emerging specialties, and research schools", History of science, xix (1981), 20-40, p. 27. Geison's article was stimulated by the publication of David O. Edge and Michael Mulkay's Astronomy transformed: The emergence of radio astronomy in Britain (New York, 1976), which explicitly employed models of branching and networks to account for innovation in science. Gerald L. Geison and Frederic L. Holmes, Research schools: Historical reappraisals (Osiris, 2nd ser., viii (1993)) remains the most comprehensive review of research schools to date.
99. Gerald L. Geison, "Scientific change, emerging specialties, and research schools", History of science, xix (1981), 20-40, p. 27. Geison's article was stimulated by the publication of David O. Edge and Michael Mulkay's Astronomy transformed: The emergence of radio astronomy in Britain (New York, 1976), which explicitly employed models of branching and networks to account for innovation in science. Gerald L. Geison and Frederic L. Holmes, Research schools: Historical reappraisals (Osiris, 2nd ser., viii (1993)) remains the most comprehensive review of research schools to date.
100. Naomi Oreskes, "La lente plongeé vers le fond des océans", Science et vie, March 1998, 84-90; Gary E. Weir, An ocean in common: American naval officers, scientists, and the ocean environment (College Station, TX, 2001); Naomi Oreskes and Homer LeGrand (eds), Plate tectonics: An insider's history of the modern theory of the Earth (Boulder, 2001); and Ronald E. Doel, "Constituting the postwar earth sciences: The military's influence on the environmental sciences in America after 1945", Social studies of science (forthcoming). No comprehensive historical study of this research centre exists; reminiscences by Lamont scientists appear in Laurence Lippsett (ed.), Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory: Twelve perspectives on the first fifty years, 1949-1999 (New York, 1999).
101. Naomi Oreskes, "La lente plongeé vers le fond des océans", Science et vie, March 1998, 84-90; Gary E. Weir, An ocean
102. Naomi Oreskes, "La lente plongeé vers le fond des océans", Science et vie, March 1998, 84-90; Gary E. Weir, An ocean in common: American naval officers, scientists, and the ocean environment (College Station, TX, 2001); Naomi Oreskes and Homer LeGrand (eds), Plate tectonics: An insider's history of the modern theory of the Earth (Boulder, 2001); and Ronald E. Doel, "Constituting the postwar earth sciences: The military's influence on the environmental sciences in America after 1945", Social studies of science (forthcoming). No comprehensive historical study of this research centre exists; reminiscences by Lamont scientists appear in Laurence Lippsett (ed.), Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory: Twelve perspectives on the first fifty years, 1949-1999 (New York, 1999).
103. Naomi Oreskes, "La lente plongeé vers le fond des océans", Science et vie, March 1998, 84-90; Gary E. Weir, An ocean in common: American naval officers, scientists, and the ocean environment (College Station, TX, 2001); Naomi Oreskes and Homer LeGrand (eds), Plate tectonics: An insider's history of the modern theory of the Earth (Boulder, 2001); and Ronald E. Doel, "Constituting the postwar earth sciences: The military's influence on the environmental sciences in America after 1945", Social studies of science (forthcoming). No comprehensive historical study of this research centre exists; reminiscences by Lamont scientists appear in Laurence Lippsett (ed.), Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory: Twelve perspectives on the first fifty years, 1949-1999 (New York, 1999).
104. Naomi Oreskes, "La lente plongeé vers le fond des océans", Science et vie, March 1998, 84-90; Gary E. Weir, An ocean in common: American naval officers, scientists, and the ocean environment (College Station, TX, 2001); Naomi Oreskes and Homer LeGrand (eds), Plate tectonics: An insider's history of the modern theory of the Earth (Boulder, 2001); and Ronald E. Doel, "Constituting the postwar earth sciences: The military's influence on the environmental sciences in America after 1945", Social studies of science (forthcoming). No comprehensive historical study of this research centre exists; reminiscences by Lamont scientists appear in Laurence Lippsett (ed.), Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory: Twelve perspectives on the first fifty years, 1949-1999 (New York, 1999).
105. Geison, op. cit. (ref. 41), 24; see also Tanya J. Levin and Ronald E. Doel, "The Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory oral history project: A review of preliminary results", Earth sciences history, xix (2000), 26-32, and Doel, "Constituting the postwar earth sciences" (ref. 42).
106. Geison, op. cit. (ref. 41), 24; see also Tanya J. Levin and Ronald E. Doel, "The Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory oral history project: A review of preliminary results", Earth sciences history, xix (2000), 26-32, and Doel, "Constituting the postwar earth sciences" (ref. 42).
107. Geison, op. cit. (ref. 41), 24; see also Tanya J. Levin and Ronald E. Doel, "The Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory oral history project: A review of preliminary results", Earth sciences history, xix (2000), 26-32, and Doel, "Constituting the postwar earth sciences" (ref. 42).
108. P. Thomas Carroll, "You are what you program: Life course studies, careers in research, and technological lag", History of Science Society meeting, Madison, Wisconsin, 2 Nov. 1991; for life course studies, see Matilda White Riley, Anne Foner, and Joan Waring, "Sociology of age", in Niel J. Smelser (ed.), Handbook of sociology (Newberry Park, CA, 1988), 243-90. I thank Carroll for helpful discussions on this point.
109. P. Thomas Carroll, "You are what you program: Life course studies, careers in research, and technological lag", History of Science Society meeting, Madison, Wisconsin, 2 Nov. 1991; for life course studies, see Matilda White Riley, Anne Foner, and Joan Waring, "Sociology of age", in Niel J. Smelser (ed.), Handbook of sociology (Newberry Park, CA, 1988), 243-90. I thank Carroll for helpful discussions on this point.
110. Historians of science nevertheless have urged such efforts for decades; see Charles E. Rosenberg, "Science in American society: A generation of historical debate", Isis, lxxiv (1983), 356-67, p. 366; Rosenberg, "Woods or trees: Ideas and actors in the history of science", Isis, lxxix (1988), 565-70; David A. Hollinger, In the American provence: Studies in the history and historiography of ideas (Baltimore, 1989), 181; and Lewis Pyenson, "'Who the guys were': Prosopography in the history of science", History of science, xv (1977), 155-88.
111. Historians of science nevertheless have urged such efforts for decades; see Charles E. Rosenberg, "Science in American society: A generation of historical debate", Isis, lxxiv (1983), 356-67, p. 366; Rosenberg, "Woods or trees: Ideas and actors in the history of science", Isis, lxxix (1988), 565-70; David A. Hollinger, In the American provence: Studies in the history and historiography of ideas (Baltimore, 1989), 181; and Lewis Pyenson, "'Who the guys were': Prosopography in the history of science", History of science, xv (1977), 155-88.
112. Historians of science nevertheless have urged such efforts for decades; see Charles E. Rosenberg, "Science in American society: A generation of historical debate", Isis, lxxiv (1983), 356-67, p. 366; Rosenberg, "Woods or trees: Ideas and actors in the history of science", Isis, lxxix (1988), 565-70; David A. Hollinger, In the American provence: Studies in the history and historiography of ideas (Baltimore, 1989), 181; and Lewis Pyenson, "'Who the guys were': Prosopography in the history of science", History of science, xv (1977), 155-88.
113. Historians of science nevertheless have urged such efforts for decades; see Charles E. Rosenberg, "Science in American society: A generation of historical debate", Isis, lxxiv (1983), 356-67, p. 366; Rosenberg, "Woods or trees: Ideas and actors in the history of science", Isis, lxxix (1988), 565-70; David A. Hollinger, In the American provence: Studies in the history and historiography of ideas (Baltimore, 1989), 181; and Lewis Pyenson, "'Who the guys were': Prosopography in the history of science", History of science, xv (1977), 155-88.
114. Charles T. Morrissey, "The two sentence format as an interviewing technique in oral history fieldwork", The oral history review, xv (1987), 43-53; Charles T. Morrissey, "The imprint of history on life-course research: Oral history and the Berkeley guidance study", International journal of oral history, iii (1982), 51-63; and Eva McMahan, Elite oral history discourse: A study of cooperation and coherence (Tuscaloosa, 1989). See also Harriet Zuckerman, "Interviewing the ultra-elite", Public opinion quarterly, xxxvi (1972), 159-75.
115. Charles T. Morrissey, "The two sentence format as an interviewing technique in oral history fieldwork", The oral history review, xv (1987), 43-53; Charles T. Morrissey, "The imprint of history on life-course research: Oral history and the Berkeley guidance study", International journal of oral history, iii (1982), 51-63; and Eva McMahan, Elite oral history discourse: A study of cooperation and coherence (Tuscaloosa, 1989). See also Harriet Zuckerman, "Interviewing the ultra-elite", Public opinion quarterly, xxxvi (1972), 159-75.
116. Charles T. Morrissey, "The two sentence format as an interviewing technique in oral history fieldwork", The oral history review, xv (1987), 43-53; Charles T. Morrissey, "The imprint of history on life-course research: Oral history and the Berkeley guidance study", International journal of oral history, iii (1982), 51-63; and Eva McMahan, Elite oral history discourse: A study of cooperation and coherence (Tuscaloosa, 1989). See also Harriet Zuckerman, "Interviewing the ultra-elite", Public opinion quarterly, xxxvi (1972), 159-75.
117. Charles T. Morrissey, "The two sentence format as an interviewing technique in oral history fieldwork", The oral history review, xv (1987), 43-53; Charles T. Morrissey, "The imprint of history on life-course research: Oral history and the Berkeley guidance study", International journal of oral history, iii (1982), 51-63; and Eva McMahan, Elite oral history discourse: A study of cooperation and coherence (Tuscaloosa, 1989). See also Harriet Zuckerman, "Interviewing the ultra-elite", Public opinion quarterly, xxxvi (1972), 159-75.
118. John Servos, Physical chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling: The making of a science in America (Princeton, 1990), pp. xiii-xvi.
119. On interdisciplinary science in early twentieth-century America, see John Servos, "To explore the borderland: The foundation of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington", Historical studies in the physical sciences, xiv (1983), 147-85; Robert H. Kargon, "Temple to science: Cooperative research and the birth of the California Institute of Technology", Historical studies in the physical sciences, viii (1977), 3-31; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science: Foundations and natural scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991); and Ronald E. Doel, Solar system astronomy in America: Communities, patronage, and interdisciplinary research, 1920-1960 (New York, 1996).
120. On interdisciplinary science in early twentieth-century America, see John Servos, "To explore the borderland: The foundation of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington", Historical studies in the physical sciences, xiv (1983), 147-85; Robert H. Kargon, "Temple to science: Cooperative research and the birth of the California Institute of Technology", Historical studies in the physical sciences, viii (1977), 3-31; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science: Foundations and natural scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991); and Ronald E. Doel, Solar system astronomy in America: Communities, patronage, and interdisciplinary research, 1920-1960 (New York, 1996).
121. On interdisciplinary science in early twentieth-century America, see John Servos, "To explore the borderland: The foundation of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington", Historical studies in the physical sciences, xiv (1983), 147-85; Robert H. Kargon, "Temple to science: Cooperative research and the birth of the California Institute of Technology", Historical studies in the physical sciences, viii (1977), 3-31; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science: Foundations and natural scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991); and Ronald E. Doel, Solar system astronomy in America: Communities, patronage, and interdisciplinary research, 1920-1960 (New York, 1996).
122. On interdisciplinary science in early twentieth-century America, see John Servos, "To explore the borderland: The foundation of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington", Historical studies in the physical sciences, xiv (1983), 147-85; Robert H. Kargon, "Temple to science: Cooperative research and the birth of the California Institute of Technology", Historical studies in the physical sciences, viii (1977), 3-31; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science: Foundations and natural scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991); and Ronald E. Doel, Solar system astronomy in America: Communities, patronage, and interdisciplinary research, 1920-1960 (New York, 1996).
123. Bowler, op. cit. (ref. 34), 1-7, 546-53; Spencer R. Weart, "From the nuclear frying pan to the global fire", Bulletin of the atomic scientists, xlviii/5 (1992), 18-27, and Ronald E. Doel, "The earth sciences and geophysics", in John Krige and Dominique Pestre (eds), Science in the twentieth century (London, 1997), 361-88.
124. Bowler, op. cit. (ref. 34), 1-7, 546-53; Spencer R. Weart, "From the nuclear frying pan to the global fire", Bulletin of the atomic scientists, xlviii/5 (1992), 18-27, and Ronald E. Doel, "The earth sciences and geophysics", in John Krige and Dominique Pestre (eds), Science in the twentieth century (London, 1997), 361-88.
125. Bowler, op. cit. (ref. 34), 1-7, 546-53; Spencer R. Weart, "From the nuclear frying pan to the global fire", Bulletin of the atomic scientists, xlviii/5 (1992), 18-27, and Ronald E. Doel, "The earth sciences and geophysics", in John Krige and Dominique Pestre (eds), Science in the twentieth century (London, 1997), 361-88.
126. This point, though aimed at traditional archival resources, is well developed in Pnina Abir-Am, "The biotheoretical gathering, trans-disciplinary authority and the incipient legitimation of molecular biology in the 1930s: New perspective on the historical sociology of science", History of science, xxv (1987), 1-70; see also the introduction to Oral history of space, science, and technology: A catalog of the collection of the Department of Space History, National Air and Space Museum (Washington, DC, 1993).
127. This point, though aimed at traditional archival resources, is well developed in Pnina Abir-Am, "The biotheoretical gathering, trans-disciplinary authority and the incipient legitimation of molecular biology in the 1930s: New perspective on the historical sociology of science", History of science, xxv (1987), 1-70; see also the introduction to Oral history of space, science, and technology: A catalog of the collection of the Department of Space History, National Air and Space Museum (Washington, DC, 1993).
128. Fortunately an oral history program is underway there; see Table 1.
129. Rossiter, op. cit. (ref. 28); Sally Gregory Kohlstedt, "Parlors, primers, and public schooling: Education for science in nineteenth-century America", Isis, lxxxi (1990), 425-45; Peggy A. Kidwell, "Harvard astronomers in World War II", in Clark A. Elliott and Margaret W. Rossiter (eds), Science at Harvard University: Historical perspectives (Bethlehem, PA, 1992), 275-302; Lankford and Slavings, op. cit. (ref. 26); Peter Galison, How experiments end (Chicago, 1987); and Traweek, op. cit. (ref. 24).
130. Rossiter, op. cit. (ref. 28); Sally Gregory Kohlstedt, "Parlors, primers, and public schooling: Education for science in nineteenth-century America", Isis, lxxxi (1990), 425-45; Peggy A. Kidwell, "Harvard astronomers in World War II", in Clark A. Elliott and Margaret W. Rossiter (eds), Science at Harvard University: Historical perspectives (Bethlehem, PA, 1992), 275-302; Lankford and Slavings, op. cit. (ref. 26); Peter Galison, How experiments end (Chicago, 1987); and Traweek, op. cit. (ref. 24).
131. Rossiter, op. cit. (ref. 28); Sally Gregory Kohlstedt, "Parlors, primers, and public schooling: Education for science in nineteenth-century America", Isis, lxxxi (1990), 425-45; Peggy A. Kidwell, "Harvard astronomers in World War II", in Clark A. Elliott and Margaret W. Rossiter (eds), Science at Harvard University: Historical perspectives (Bethlehem, PA, 1992), 275-302; Lankford and Slavings, op. cit. (ref. 26); Peter Galison, How experiments end (Chicago, 1987); and Traweek, op. cit. (ref. 24).
132. Rossiter, op. cit. (ref. 28); Sally Gregory Kohlstedt, "Parlors, primers, and public schooling: Education for science in nineteenth-century America", Isis, lxxxi (1990), 425-45; Peggy A. Kidwell, "Harvard astronomers in World War II", in Clark A. Elliott and Margaret W. Rossiter (eds), Science at Harvard University: Historical perspectives (Bethlehem, PA, 1992), 275-302; Lankford and Slavings, op. cit. (ref. 26); Peter Galison, How experiments end (Chicago, 1987); and Traweek, op. cit. (ref. 24).
133. Rossiter, op. cit. (ref. 28); Sally Gregory Kohlstedt, "Parlors, primers, and public schooling: Education for science in nineteenth-century America", Isis, lxxxi (1990), 425-45; Peggy A. Kidwell, "Harvard astronomers in World War II", in Clark A. Elliott and Margaret W. Rossiter (eds), Science at Harvard University: Historical perspectives (Bethlehem, PA, 1992), 275-302; Lankford and Slavings, op. cit. (ref. 26); Peter Galison, How experiments end (Chicago, 1987); and Traweek, op. cit. (ref. 24).
134. Rossiter, op. cit. (ref. 28); Sally Gregory Kohlstedt, "Parlors, primers, and public schooling: Education for science in nineteenth-century America", Isis, lxxxi (1990), 425-45; Peggy A. Kidwell, "Harvard astronomers in World War II", in Clark A. Elliott and Margaret W. Rossiter (eds), Science at Harvard University: Historical perspectives (Bethlehem, PA, 1992), 275-302; Lankford and Slavings, op. cit. (ref. 26); Peter Galison, How experiments end (Chicago, 1987); and Traweek, op. cit. (ref. 24).
135. Robert K. Merton, "The Matthew effect in science, II: Cumulative advantage and the symbolism of intellectual property", Isis, lxxix (1988), 606-23; Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific elite: Nobel laureates in the United States (New York, 1977); and Robert Marc Friedman, The politics of excellence: Behind the Nobel prize in science (New York, 2001).
136. Robert K. Merton, "The Matthew effect in science, II: Cumulative advantage and the symbolism of intellectual property", Isis, lxxix (1988), 606-23; Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific elite: Nobel laureates in the United States (New York, 1977); and Robert Marc Friedman, The politics of excellence: Behind the Nobel prize in science (New York, 2001).
137. Robert K. Merton, "The Matthew effect in science, II: Cumulative advantage and the symbolism of intellectual property", Isis, lxxix (1988), 606-23; Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific elite: Nobel laureates in the United States (New York, 1977); and Robert Marc Friedman, The politics of excellence: Behind the Nobel prize in science (New York, 2001).
138. Kevles, op. cit. (ref. 27).
139. For an introduction to this literature, see Ronald E. Doel, "Scientists as policymakers, advisors, and intelligence agents: Linking diplomatic history with the history of science", in Thomas Soderqvist (ed.), The historiography of the contemporary history of science, medicine, and technology (London, 1997), 33-62; Ronald E. Doel and Allan A. Needell, "Science, scientists, and the CIA: Balancing international ideals, national needs, and professional opportunities", in Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones and Christopher Andrew (eds), Eternal vigilance: Fifty years of the CIA (London, 1997), 59-81; and Jeffrey T. Richelson, The wizards of Langley: Inside the CIA's directorate of science and technology (Boulder, CO, 2001). Interviews with several scientists whose primary affiliations were with post-war government and military agencies were done by David DeVorkin under the auspices of the Space Astronomy Oral History Project (see Table 1).
140. For an introduction to this literature, see Ronald E. Doel, "Scientists as policymakers, advisors, and intelligence agents: Linking diplomatic history with the history of science", in Thomas Soderqvist (ed.), The historiography of the contemporary history of science, medicine, and technology (London, 1997), 33-62; Ronald E. Doel and Allan A. Needell, "Science, scientists, and the CIA: Balancing international ideals, national needs, and professional opportunities", in Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones and Christopher Andrew (eds), Eternal vigilance: Fifty years of the CIA (London, 1997), 59-81; and Jeffrey T. Richelson, The wizards of Langley: Inside the CIA's directorate of science and technology (Boulder, CO, 2001). Interviews with several scientists whose primary affiliations were with post-war government and military agencies were done by David DeVorkin under the auspices of the Space Astronomy Oral History Project (see Table 1).
141. For an introduction to this literature, see Ronald E. Doel, "Scientists as policymakers, advisors, and intelligence agents: Linking diplomatic history with the history of science", in Thomas Soderqvist (ed.), The historiography of the contemporary history of science, medicine, and technology (London, 1997), 33-62; Ronald E. Doel and Allan A. Needell, "Science, scientists, and the CIA: Balancing international ideals, national needs, and professional opportunities", in Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones and Christopher Andrew (eds), Eternal vigilance: Fifty years of the CIA (London, 1997), 59-81; and Jeffrey T. Richelson, The wizards of Langley: Inside the CIA's directorate of science and technology (Boulder, CO, 2001). Interviews with several scientists whose primary affiliations were with post-war government and military agencies were done by David DeVorkin under the auspices of the Space Astronomy Oral History Project (see Table 1).
142. While oral history interviews with certain military and intelligence researchers have been made on a classified basis, few individual interviews are now part of accessible archives; see ref. 13.
143. Stanley Cohen, "The scientific establishment and the transmission of quantum mechanics to the United States", American historical review, lxxvi (1971), 442-66; Kohler, op. cit. (ref. 48); and Abir-Am, op. cit. (ref. 50).
144. Stanley Cohen, "The scientific establishment and the transmission of quantum mechanics to the United States", American historical review, lxxvi (1971), 442-66; Kohler, op. cit. (ref. 48); and Abir-Am, op. cit. (ref. 50).
145. Stanley Cohen, "The scientific establishment and the transmission of quantum mechanics to the United States", American historical review, lxxvi (1971), 442-66; Kohler, op. cit. (ref. 48); and Abir-Am, op. cit. (ref. 50).
146. Jessica Wang, American science in an age of anxiety: Scientists, anticommunism, and the Cold War (Chapel Hill, NC, 1999), and Jessica Wang, "Scientists and the problem of the public in Cold War America", Osiris, 2nd ser., xvii (2002), 323-47. A start in this new direction is Brian Schefke, "Morality and materialism: American conservatives and science, 1945-1964", M.A. thesis, Oregon State University, 2000.
147. Jessica Wang, American science in an age of anxiety: Scientists, anticommunism, and the Cold War (Chapel Hill, NC, 1999), and Jessica Wang, "Scientists and the problem of the public in Cold War America", Osiris, 2nd ser., xvii (2002), 323-47. A start in this new direction is Brian Schefke, "Morality and materialism: American conservatives and science, 1945-1964", M.A. thesis, Oregon State University, 2000.
148. Jessica Wang, American science in an age of anxiety: Scientists, anticommunism, and the Cold War (Chapel Hill, NC, 1999), and Jessica Wang, "Scientists and the problem of the public in Cold War America", Osiris, 2nd ser., xvii (2002), 323-47. A start in this new direction is Brian Schefke, "Morality and materialism: American conservatives and science, 1945-1964", M.A. thesis, Oregon State University, 2000.
149. Ronald E. Doel, "Evaluating Soviet lunar science in Cold War America", Osiris, 2nd ser., vii (1992), 238-64; see also Allan A. Needell, "'Truth is my weapon': Project TROY, political warfare, and government-academic relations in the national security state", Diplomatic history, xvii (1993), 399-420. Occasional Sources for History of Modern Astrophysics (SHMA) interview subjects did however discuss recollections of secret military research during the Second World War, suggesting that the war was a bounded experience for this community when interviews were made in the late 1970s; see for example Gerald Kron OHI (David H. DeVorkin, 20 May 1978, SHMA at AIP).
150. Ronald E. Doel, "Evaluating Soviet lunar science in Cold War America", Osiris, 2nd ser., vii (1992), 238-64; see also Allan A. Needell, "'Truth is my weapon': Project TROY, political warfare, and government-academic relations in the national security state", Diplomatic history, xvii (1993), 399-420. Occasional Sources for History of Modern Astrophysics (SHMA) interview subjects did however discuss recollections of secret military research during the Second World War, suggesting that the war was a bounded experience for this community when interviews were made in the late 1970s; see for example Gerald Kron OHI (David H. DeVorkin, 20 May 1978, SHMA at AIP).
151. Ronald E. Doel, "Evaluating Soviet lunar science in Cold War America", Osiris, 2nd ser., vii (1992), 238-64; see also Allan A. Needell, "'Truth is my weapon': Project TROY, political warfare, and government-academic relations in the national security state", Diplomatic history, xvii (1993), 399-420. Occasional Sources for History of Modern Astrophysics (SHMA) interview subjects did however discuss recollections of secret military research during the Second World War, suggesting that the war was a bounded experience for this community when interviews were made in the late 1970s; see for example Gerald Kron OHI (David H. DeVorkin, 20 May 1978, SHMA at AIP).
152. Table 1 provides additional details. The role of oral history in diplomatic history is contentious as well; see Mark Kramer, Bruce J. Allyn, James G. Blight, and David A. Welch, "Remembering the Cuban missile crisis: Should we swallow oral history?", International security, xv (1990), 212-18.
153. Thomas G. Paterson, "Defining and doing the history of American foreign relations: A primer", in Michael J. Hogan and Thomas G. Paterson (eds), Explaining the history of American foreign policy (New York, 1991), 36-54; see also John Lewis Gaddis, The United States and the end of the Cold War: Implications, reconsiderations, provocations (New York, 1992), 87-104.
154. Thomas G. Paterson, "Defining and doing the history of American foreign relations: A primer", in Michael J. Hogan and Thomas G. Paterson (eds), Explaining the history of American foreign policy (New York, 1991), 36-54; see also John Lewis Gaddis, The United States and the end of the Cold War: Implications, reconsiderations, provocations (New York, 1992), 87-104.
155. A. Hunter Dupree, Science in the federal government: A history of politics and activities (Baltimore, 1986), pp. vii-xviii.
156. As one discovers using the International Catalog of Sources database (ref. 14).
157. Paul Josephson, "The crisis in Russian physics", American scientist, Nov-Dec. 1993, 571-9; Kirill O. Rossiyanov, "Stalin as Lysenko's editor: Reshaping political discourse in Soviet science", Configurations, i (1993), 439-56; Nikolai Krementsov, "Soviet science on the threshold of the Cold War: The KR affair", Journal for the history and philosophy of the life sciences, xvii (1995), 419-46; Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist science (Princeton, 1997); and David Holloway, Stalin and the bomb: The Soviet Union and atomic energy, 1939-1956 (New Haven, 1994). Certain institution archives already became available to researchers by the late 1980s; see Robert A. McCutcheon, "The 1936-37 purge of Soviet astronomy", Slavic review, 1 (1991), 100-17, and Ronald E. Doel and Robert A. McCutcheon, "Introduction [to Astronomy Under the Soviets]", Journal for the history of astronomy, xxvi (1995), 279-96.
158. Paul Josephson, "The crisis in Russian physics", American scientist, Nov-Dec. 1993, 571-9; Kirill O. Rossiyanov, "Stalin as Lysenko's editor: Reshaping political discourse in Soviet science", Configurations, i (1993), 439-56; Nikolai Krementsov, "Soviet science on the threshold of the Cold War: The KR affair", Journal for the history and philosophy of the life sciences, xvii (1995), 419-46; Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist science (Princeton, 1997); and David Holloway, Stalin and the bomb: The Soviet Union and atomic energy, 1939-1956 (New Haven, 1994). Certain institution archives already became available to researchers by the late 1980s; see Robert A. McCutcheon, "The 1936-37 purge of Soviet astronomy", Slavic review, 1 (1991), 100-17, and Ronald E. Doel and Robert A. McCutcheon, "Introduction [to Astronomy Under the Soviets]", Journal for the history of astronomy, xxvi (1995), 279-96.
159. Paul Josephson, "The crisis in Russian physics", American scientist, Nov-Dec. 1993, 571-9; Kirill O. Rossiyanov, "Stalin as Lysenko's editor: Reshaping political discourse in Soviet science", Configurations, i (1993), 439-56; Nikolai Krementsov, "Soviet science on the threshold of the Cold War: The KR affair", Journal for the history and philosophy of the life sciences, xvii (1995), 419-46; Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist science (Princeton, 1997); and David Holloway, Stalin and the bomb: The Soviet Union and atomic energy, 1939-1956 (New Haven, 1994). Certain institution archives already became available to researchers by the late 1980s; see Robert A. McCutcheon, "The 1936-37 purge of Soviet astronomy", Slavic review, 1 (1991), 100-17, and Ronald E. Doel and Robert A. McCutcheon, "Introduction [to Astronomy Under the Soviets]", Journal for the history of astronomy, xxvi (1995), 279-96.
160. Paul Josephson, "The crisis in Russian physics", American scientist, Nov-Dec. 1993, 571-9; Kirill O. Rossiyanov, "Stalin as Lysenko's editor: Reshaping political discourse in Soviet science", Configurations, i (1993), 439-56; Nikolai Krementsov, "Soviet science on the threshold of the Cold War: The KR affair", Journal for the history and philosophy of the life sciences, xvii (1995), 419-46; Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist science (Princeton, 1997); and David Holloway, Stalin and the bomb: The Soviet Union and atomic energy, 1939-1956 (New Haven, 1994). Certain institution archives already became available to researchers by the late 1980s; see Robert A. McCutcheon, "The 1936-37 purge of Soviet astronomy", Slavic review, 1 (1991), 100-17, and Ronald E. Doel and Robert A. McCutcheon, "Introduction [to Astronomy Under the Soviets]", Journal for the history of astronomy, xxvi (1995), 279-96.
161. Paul Josephson, "The crisis in Russian physics", American scientist, Nov-Dec. 1993, 571-9; Kirill O. Rossiyanov, "Stalin as Lysenko's editor: Reshaping political discourse in Soviet science", Configurations, i (1993), 439-56; Nikolai Krementsov, "Soviet science on the threshold of the Cold War: The KR affair", Journal for the history and philosophy of the life sciences, xvii (1995), 419-46; Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist science (Princeton, 1997); and David Holloway, Stalin and the bomb: The Soviet Union and atomic energy, 1939-1956 (New Haven, 1994). Certain institution archives already became available to researchers by the late 1980s; see Robert A. McCutcheon, "The 1936-37 purge of Soviet astronomy", Slavic review, 1 (1991), 100-17, and Ronald E. Doel and Robert A. McCutcheon, "Introduction [to Astronomy Under the Soviets]", Journal for the history of astronomy, xxvi (1995), 279-96.
162. Paul Josephson, "The crisis in Russian physics", American scientist, Nov-Dec. 1993, 571-9; Kirill O. Rossiyanov, "Stalin as Lysenko's editor: Reshaping political discourse in Soviet science", Configurations, i (1993), 439-56; Nikolai Krementsov, "Soviet science on the threshold of the Cold War: The KR affair", Journal for the history and philosophy of the life sciences, xvii (1995), 419-46; Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist science (Princeton, 1997); and David Holloway, Stalin and the bomb: The Soviet Union and atomic energy, 1939-1956 (New Haven, 1994). Certain institution archives already became available to researchers by the late 1980s; see Robert A. McCutcheon, "The 1936-37 purge of Soviet astronomy", Slavic review, 1 (1991), 100-17, and Ronald E. Doel and Robert A. McCutcheon, "Introduction [to Astronomy Under the Soviets]", Journal for the history of astronomy, xxvi (1995), 279-96.
163. Paul Josephson, "The crisis in Russian physics", American scientist, Nov-Dec. 1993, 571-9; Kirill O. Rossiyanov, "Stalin as Lysenko's editor: Reshaping political discourse in Soviet science", Configurations, i (1993), 439-56; Nikolai Krementsov, "Soviet science on the threshold of the Cold War: The KR affair", Journal for the history and philosophy of the life sciences, xvii (1995), 419-46; Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist science (Princeton, 1997); and David Holloway, Stalin and the bomb: The Soviet Union and atomic energy, 1939-1956 (New Haven, 1994). Certain institution archives already became available to researchers by the late 1980s; see Robert A. McCutcheon, "The 1936-37 purge of Soviet astronomy", Slavic review, 1 (1991), 100-17, and Ronald E. Doel and Robert A. McCutcheon, "Introduction [to Astronomy Under the Soviets]", Journal for the history of astronomy, xxvi (1995), 279-96.
164. Holloway, op. cit (ref. 64), 6; see also Patricia Kennedy Grimsted, "Archives of Russia seven years after: 'Purveyors of sensations' or 'Shadows cast to the past'?", Working Paper #20, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Sept. 1998.
165. Holloway, op. cit (ref. 64), 6; see also Patricia Kennedy Grimsted, "Archives of Russia seven years after: 'Purveyors of sensations' or 'Shadows cast to the past'?", Working Paper #20, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Sept. 1998.
166. In the former East Germany, the Office of National Security (Stasi) "destroyed considerable amounts of the holdings in the fall of 1989"; see Gary Bruce, "Update on the Stasi archives", Cold War International History Project bulletin, 12/13 (2001), 328-50, p. 348; see also Paul Maddrell, "Western intelligence gathering and the division of German science", ibid., 352-9.
167. In the former East Germany, the Office of National Security (Stasi) "destroyed considerable amounts of the holdings in the fall of 1989"; see Gary Bruce, "Update on the Stasi archives", Cold War International History Project bulletin, 12/13 (2001), 328-50, p. 348; see also Paul Maddrell, "Western intelligence gathering and the division of German science", ibid., 352-9.
168. Mark Kramer, "Archival research in Moscow: Progress and pitfalls", Cold War International History Project bulletin, 3 (1993), 1, 18-39, especially p. 31. Disparities in overall coverage remain: for instance, no correspondence files for the dissonant astronomer I. S. Shklovskii are known, despite his importance to the history of mid-twentieth century Soviet astronomy; on Shklovskii, see Loren R. Graham, Science in Russia and the Soviet Union: A short history (New York, 1993), 223-4.
169. Mark Kramer, "Archival research in Moscow: Progress and pitfalls", Cold War International History Project bulletin, 3 (1993), 1, 18-39, especially p. 31. Disparities in overall coverage remain: for instance, no correspondence files for the dissonant astronomer I. S. Shklovskii are known, despite his importance to the history of mid-twentieth century Soviet astronomy; on Shklovskii, see Loren R. Graham, Science in Russia and the Soviet Union: A short history (New York, 1993), 223-4.
170. Gennady Gorelik, "S chego nachinalas' sovetskaya vodorodnaya bomba? [What did the Soviet H-bomb begin from?]", VIET, i (1993), 85-95.
171. Daniel Alexandrov, private communication, Jan. 2002.
172. Important new contributions include Helen Rozwadowski, The sea knows no boundaries: A century of marine science under ICES (Seattle, 2002), and Alexis De Greiff, "The tale of two peripheries: The creation of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics in Trieste", Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences, xxxiii (2002), 3-32.
173. Important new contributions include Helen Rozwadowski, The sea knows no boundaries: A century of marine science under ICES (Seattle, 2002), and Alexis De Greiff, "The tale of two peripheries: The creation of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics in Trieste", Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences, xxxiii (2002), 3-32.
174. The dearth of comparative approaches in the history of science is addressed in Lewis Pyenson, "Comparative history of science", History of science, xl (2002), 1-33; see p. 2.
175. On the IGY, see Allan A. Needell, Science, Cold War and the American state: Lloyd V. Berkner and the balance of professional ideals (London, 2000). Such a project has gained support within the History Committee of the American Geophysical Union.
176. Archival interviews of this kind were done in conjunction with the "Astronomy and the State Conference", Washington, D.C., January 1994 under sponsorship of the International Relations Committee of the History Astronomy Division, American Astronomical Society; see Doel and McCutcheon, op. cit (ref. 64). Political pressures encouraged highly internalist histories of science among Soviet historians of science prior to 1990; see G. M. Idlis and N. I. Nevskaya, "A Soviet history of astronomy", Acta historiae rerum naturalium necnon technicarum, xviii (1982), 209-61.
177. Archival interviews of this kind were done in conjunction with the "Astronomy and the State Conference", Washington, D.C., January 1994 under sponsorship of the International Relations Committee of the History Astronomy Division, American Astronomical Society; see Doel and McCutcheon, op. cit (ref. 64). Political pressures encouraged highly internalist histories of science among Soviet historians of science prior to 1990; see G. M. Idlis and N. I. Nevskaya, "A Soviet history of astronomy", Acta historiae rerum naturalium necnon technicarum, xviii (1982), 209-61.
178. Archival interviews of this kind were done in conjunction with the "Astronomy and the State Conference", Washington, D.C., January 1994 under sponsorship of the International Relations Committee of the History Astronomy Division, American Astronomical Society; see Doel and McCutcheon, op. cit (ref. 64). Political pressures encouraged highly internalist histories of science among Soviet historians of science prior to 1990; see G. M. Idlis and N. I. Nevskaya, "A Soviet history of astronomy", Acta historiae rerum naturalium necnon technicarum, xviii (1982), 209-61.
179. Levin and Doel, op. cit. (ref. 43).
180. The emerging crisis in contemporary records management and proposed remedies are addressed in Ann J. Gilliland-Swetland, Enduring paradigm, new opportunities: The value of the archival perspective in the digital environment (Washington, D.C., 2000); Peter Lyman and Howar Besser, "Defining the problem of our vanishing memory: Background, current status, models for resolution", in Margaret MacLean and Ben H. Davis (eds), Time and bits: Managing digital continuity (Los Angeles, 1999); and Seamus Ross, Changing trains at Wigan: Digital preservation and the future of scholarship (London, 2000). Even the U.S. National Archives lacks a viable strategy to preserve federal electronic records; see U.S. General Accounting Office, Information management: Challenges in managing and preserving electronic records (Washington, D.C., 2002), available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d02586.pdf. I thank Spencer Weart and Deborah Day for helpful discussions on this issue.
181. The emerging crisis in contemporary records management and proposed remedies are addressed in Ann J. Gilliland-Swetland, Enduring paradigm, new opportunities: The value of the archival perspective in the digital environment (Washington, D.C., 2000); Peter Lyman and Howar Besser, "Defining the problem of our vanishing memory: Background, current status, models for resolution", in Margaret MacLean and Ben H. Davis (eds), Time and bits: Managing digital continuity (Los Angeles, 1999); and Seamus Ross, Changing trains at Wigan: Digital preservation and the future of scholarship (London, 2000). Even the U.S. National Archives lacks a viable strategy to preserve federal electronic records; see U.S. General Accounting Office, Information management: Challenges in managing and preserving electronic records (Washington, D.C., 2002), available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d02586.pdf. I thank Spencer Weart and Deborah Day for helpful discussions on this issue.
182. The emerging crisis in contemporary records management and proposed remedies are addressed in Ann J. Gilliland-Swetland, Enduring paradigm, new opportunities: The value of the archival perspective in the digital environment (Washington, D.C., 2000); Peter Lyman and Howar Besser, "Defining the problem of our vanishing memory: Background, current status, models for resolution", in Margaret MacLean and Ben H. Davis (eds), Time and bits: Managing digital continuity (Los Angeles, 1999); and Seamus Ross, Changing trains at Wigan: Digital preservation and the future of scholarship (London, 2000). Even the U.S. National Archives lacks a viable strategy to preserve federal electronic records; see U.S. General Accounting Office, Information management: Challenges in managing and preserving electronic records (Washington, D.C., 2002), available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d02586.pdf. I thank Spencer Weart and Deborah Day for helpful discussions on this issue.
183. The emerging crisis in contemporary records management and proposed remedies are addressed in Ann J. Gilliland-Swetland, Enduring paradigm, new opportunities: The value of the archival perspective in the digital environment (Washington, D.C., 2000); Peter Lyman and Howar Besser, "Defining the problem of our vanishing memory: Background, current status, models for resolution", in Margaret MacLean and Ben H. Davis (eds), Time and bits: Managing digital continuity (Los Angeles, 1999); and Seamus Ross, Changing trains at Wigan: Digital preservation and the future of scholarship (London, 2000). Even the U.S. National Archives lacks a viable strategy to preserve federal electronic records; see U.S. General Accounting Office, Information management: Challenges in managing and preserving electronic records (Washington, D.C., 2002), available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d02586.pdf. I thank Spencer Weart and Deborah Day for helpful discussions on this issue.
184. Samuel P. Hays, "Manuscripts for recent history: A proposal for a new approach", Journal of American history, lxxvii (1990), 208-16, p. 214. See also "Access to CIA operational files of historical value", Organization of American historians newsletter, xxii/4 (Nov. 1994), 26; Tomes, op. cit. (ref. 18), 608; and Robert Seidel, "Clio and the complex: Recent historiography of science and national security", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society cxxxiv (1990), 420-41.
185. Samuel P. Hays, "Manuscripts for recent history: A proposal for a new approach", Journal of American history, lxxvii (1990), 208-16, p. 214. See also "Access to CIA operational files of historical value", Organization of American historians newsletter, xxii/4 (Nov. 1994), 26; Tomes, op. cit. (ref. 18), 608; and Robert Seidel, "Clio and the complex: Recent historiography of science and national security", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society cxxxiv (1990), 420-41.
186. Samuel P. Hays, "Manuscripts for recent history: A proposal for a new approach", Journal of American history, lxxvii (1990), 208-16, p. 214. See also "Access to CIA operational files of historical value", Organization of American historians newsletter, xxii/4 (Nov. 1994), 26; Tomes, op. cit. (ref. 18), 608; and Robert Seidel, "Clio and the complex: Recent historiography of science and national security", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society cxxxiv (1990), 420-41.
187. Samuel P. Hays, "Manuscripts for recent history: A proposal for a new approach", Journal of American history, lxxvii (1990), 208-16, p. 214. See also "Access to CIA operational files of historical value", Organization of American historians newsletter, xxii/4 (Nov. 1994), 26; Tomes, op. cit. (ref. 18), 608; and Robert Seidel, "Clio and the complex: Recent historiography of science and national security", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society cxxxiv (1990), 420-41.
188. For a particularly illuminating example, see Smith et al., op. cit. (ref. 5). The nature of the American state after 1945 and its relationship to science and scientists remains underexplored, but see Brian Balogh, Chain reaction: Expert debate and public participation in American commercial nuclear power, 1945-1975 (New York, 1991), and David M. Hart, Forged consensus: Science, technology, and economic policy in the United States, 1921-1953 (Princeton, 1998).
189. For a particularly illuminating example, see Smith et al., op. cit. (ref. 5). The nature of the American state after 1945 and its relationship to science and scientists remains underexplored, but see Brian Balogh, Chain reaction: Expert debate and public participation in American commercial nuclear power, 1945-1975 (New York, 1991), and David M. Hart, Forged consensus: Science, technology, and economic policy in the United States, 1921-1953 (Princeton, 1998).
190. For a particularly illuminating example, see Smith et al., op. cit. (ref. 5). The nature of the American state after 1945 and its relationship to science and scientists remains underexplored, but see Brian Balogh, Chain reaction: Expert debate and public participation in American commercial nuclear power, 1945-1975 (New York, 1991), and David M. Hart, Forged consensus: Science, technology, and economic policy in the United States, 1921-1953 (Princeton, 1998).
191. Michael Lynch and David Bogen, The spectacle of history: Speech, text, and memory at the Iran-Contra hearings (Durham, NC, 1996), 9-20. Lynch related master narratives to the history of science in a panel discussion on the relationship between archival sources and oral history at the 1992 History of Science Society meeting, Dec. 1992; see also Portelli, op. cit. (ref. 31), 1-26.
192. Michael Lynch and David Bogen, The spectacle of history: Speech, text, and memory at the Iran-Contra hearings (Durham, NC, 1996), 9-20. Lynch related master narratives to the history of science in a panel discussion on the relationship between archival sources and oral history at the 1992 History of Science Society meeting, Dec. 1992; see also Portelli, op. cit. (ref. 31), 1-26.
193. Michael Lynch and David Bogen, The spectacle of history: Speech, text, and memory at the Iran-Contra hearings (Durham, NC, 1996), 9-20. Lynch related master narratives to the history of science in a panel discussion on the relationship between archival sources and oral history at the 1992 History of Science Society meeting, Dec. 1992; see also Portelli, op. cit. (ref. 31), 1-26.
194. Conversation with the NRL historian David Van Keuren, March 1994. Not all groups accept that the destruction of records resulted primarily from insufficient storage facilities for classified materials: the American Library Association has charged that a "government policy of secrecy existed" under which documents were shredded and concealed and documents intended for deposit in government archives were withheld. For further information see Sigmund Diamond, Compromised campus: The collaboration of universities with the intelligence community, 1945-1955 (New York, 1992), 279.
195. Charles T. Morrissey, private communication, April 2002.
196. Rick Dingus, The photographic artifacts of Timothy O'Sullivan (Albuquerque, 1982), and Bowler, op. cit. (ref. 34).
197. Rick Dingus, The photographic artifacts of Timothy O'Sullivan (Albuquerque, 1982), and Bowler, op. cit. (ref. 34).