Women within the refugee construct: Exclusionary inclusion' in policy and practice - The Australian experience

International Journal of Refugee Law

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 7-42

  Kneebone, Susan ^a  

^a MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ASYLUM SEEKER; IMMIGRATION POLICY; REFUGEE;

AUSTRALASIA; AUSTRALIA; EASTERN HEMISPHERE; WORLD;

EID: 24344435581     PISSN: 09538186     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ijrl/eei002     Document Type: Article

References (217)

1. The word 'excluded' is used here in a general sense rather than as a reference to the exclusion clauses in the Refugees Convention Arts. 1D-F.
2. S. Kneebone, 'The Rights of Strangers: Refugees, Citizenship and Nationality' (2004) 10 Australian Journal of Human Rights 33-61.
3. G. Muller-Hoff, 'Representations of Refugee Women - Legal Discourse in Europe' (2001) (1) Law Social Justice and Global Development at www://elj.Warwick.ac.uk/global/issue/2001-1/mullerholfl.html-she argues this is implicit in the contrast of 'genuine refugees' with 'economic migrants'.
4. P. Tuitt, False Images: Law's Construction of the Refugee (Pluto Press, 1996), 24 -45;
5. S. Kneebone, 'Moving Beyond the State: Refugees, Accountability and Protection' in S. Kneebone (ed.), TheRefugees Convention 50 Years On: Globalisation and International Law (Ashgate, 2003), 279 -311.
6. T. Spijkerboer, Gender and Refugee Status (Ashgate, 2002), 105.
7. For example, E. Adjin-Tetty, 'Failure of Stale Protection Within the Context of the Convention Refugee Regime with Particular Reference to Gender-Related Persecution' (1997) 3 Journal of International Legal Studies 53 -86.
8. Art. 2(1) ICCPR.
9. L. Barnett, 'Global Governance and the Evolution of the International Refugee Regime', 14 IJRL 238-262 at 255-257 (2002) summarises the issues.
10. J. Mertus, The State and the Post Cold-War Refugee Regime: New Models, New Questions', 10 IJRL 321-346 (1998).
11. UNHCR, 1999 Global Appeal: Refugee Women (1999) 〈http://www.unhcr. ch/fdrs/ga99/women.htm accessed on 14 Sept. 2004.
12. See also V. Giuca, Humanitarian Branch, DIMA 'Australia's Humanitarian Program and Women Refugees' (address to International Commission of Jurists Conference on Women and Human Rights, Melbourne, 25 Aug. 2001).
13. nd ed., 2001), at para. 2.6.
14. C. Dauvergne, 'Citizenship, Migration Laws and Women: Gendering Permanent, Residency Statistics' (2000) 24 MULR 280-309.
15. S. Gururaja, 'Gender dimensions of displacement' (2000) 9 Forced Migration Review 13 -16.
16. Spijkerboer, n. 5 above, 5 explains that, the reason for the higher success rate is because the claimants tend to come from countries with higher success rates.
17. UNHCR, Statistical Yearbook 2001 : Refugees, Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern -Trends in Displacement, Protection, and Solutions (Oct. 2002), 37.
18. Ibid, The figures given are France (38 %), Belgium (44 %), Switzerland (44 %).
19. Spijkerboer, n. 5 above, 103.
20. I b i d.
21. [2000] 59 ALD 431. See also, Kaur v. MIMA [2001] FCA N25, (14 June 2001) (claim by woman on the basis of race/religion as she had married outside the traditional marriage laws of her country rejected). References to the Minister are abbreviated as MIMA in the instance of the Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, MIEA (the Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs), MILGEA (Minister for Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs) or MIMIA (Minister for Immigration Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs) to reflect the name changes to the Immigration portfolio.
22. No 62 of 1958 [hereinafter Migration Act].
23. Dauvergne, n. 12 above; C. Hunter, 'Khawar and Migration Legislation Amendment Bill (no. 6) 2001: Why narrowing the definition of a refugee discriminates against gender-related claims' (2002)
24. Australian Journal of Human Rights 107 -124.
25. See also the discussion of s. 91S of the Migration Act below.
26. Giuca, n. 10 above. Under the Humanitarian Program the Australian government has imposed a notional quota of 2 000 places for onshore applicants and 10000 for offshore applicants since 1996. As the information in the text below indicates, in some years the quotas have been exceeded. See S. Kneebone 'How Humanitarian is Australia's Humanitarian Program? The Case of Stateless Asylum Seekers' at www.law.monash.edu/castancentre/events/2003/kneebonepaper. html.
27. As at 8 Sept. 2004 the total number of detainees was 955, including 135 women and 49 children in Australia's detention centres, including the Christmas Island Immigration and Reception Processing centre, opened in Sept. 2001, and 29 women and children detained in the Port Augusta Residential Housing Project. (Accessed at http://www.immi.gov.au/detention/facilities.htm on 13 Sept. 2004. Statistics are given on the web links to each individual centre.)
28. Giuca, ii. 10 above.
29. I b i d.
30. CfDIMA, Guidelines on Gender issues for Decision-Makers, n. 11 above, at para 2.12 where it is stated that 'whilst women represent the majority of refugees worldwide, they represent a smaller proportion of the refugees who are resettled in Australia under the offshore Humanitarian Program'.
31. Kneebone, above n. 23.
32. DIMA, Refugee and Humanitarian Issues: Australia's Response (Oct. 2002) at 8.
33. L. Manderson et al, 'A Woman without a Man is a Woman at Risk: Woman at Risk in Australia's Humanitarian Programs' (1998) 11 JRS 267-283 at 272.
34. Which is about 50 % of the offshore Humanitarian Program.
35. DIMA, Annual Report 1997 1999 reports that the number of visas granted in 1996 1997 was 475, in 1997-1998 there were 543.
36. DIMA, Annual Report 2002-03 reports the grant of 504 Woman at Risk visas, making up 11.5 % of total 'offshore' refugee grants.
37. Dauvergne, n. 12 above.
38. Although 367 visas were issued under the Women at Risk Program in 1998-99, of the overall humanitarian program this made up a meagre 3.2 %. As Dauvergne points out of the total number of permanent resident visas granted, the Women at Risk Program made up 0.46%.' See Dauvergne, n. 12 above.
39. A study of statistics in the general migration program indicates that although more women than men arrived in Australia as settlers in the 1994 1999 period, they came largely as dependents. The same study found that women dominate family migration (whereas men dominate economic migration). Dauvergne n. 12 above.
40. The figures for the Women at Risk program under the Humanitarian Program for the 1995 1996 period show that the largest proportion came from Former Yugoslavia (40 %), 29 % from the Middle East and a disproportionate 1 % from Africa.
41. For example, DIMA, Guidelines on Gender issues/or Decision-Makers, n. 11 above at para 2.6 where it is recognised that 'due to social or cultural' conditions, women may have less opportunities for flight.
42. ExCom Conclusion No. 39 (XXXVI) - 1985, 'Refugee Women and International Protection', UN Doc A/AC96/673 para. 115(4).
43. A. Johnsson, 'The International Protection of Women Refugees: A Summary of Principal Problems and Issues', 1 IJRL 221-232 (1989).
44. Ibid., at 224.
45. Ibid., at 229.
46. Ibid., at 225.
47. Ibid., at 231.
48. st Sess, UN doc. A/AC 96/754, 1990.
49. th Dec. 2001, The Refugee Convention 'Where to from here?', University of New South Wales, The Centre for Refugee Research).
50. Gururaja n. 13 above.
51. Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 'UNHCR Policy on Refugee Women and Guidelines on Their Protection: An Assessment of Ten Years of Implementation', May 2002.
52. Ibid., 3.
53. Ibid., 24.
54. UN doc. EC/SCP/67 (1991).
55. Ibid., at para. 59.
56. Ibid., at para. 55.
57. Ibid., at para. 56.
58. th Session 1993) (Geneva, 1995).
59. UNHCR, 'Guidelines on International Protection: Gender-Related Persecution within the context of Art. 1A(2)' UN doc. HCR/GTP/02/01, 7 May 2002.
60. For example, punishment of men for transgression of sexual mores may be classified as the consequence of criminal laws of 'general application': MIMA v. Darboy [1999] 52 ALD 44; Z v. MIMA [1998] 90 FCR 51. K. Walker, 'New Uses of the Refugee Definition:" Sexuality and Refugee Status' in Kneebone (ed.), n. 4 above, 251-277.
61. ExCom Conclusion no. 87 (XLX) 1999 (n).
62. S. Turner, 'Vindicating masculinity: the fate of promoting gender equality' (2000) 9 Forced Migration Review 8-9.
63. ExCom Conclusion no. 87 (XLX) 1999 (n).
64. H. Crawley, 'Gender, persecution and the concept of politics in the asylum determination process' (2000) 9 Forced Migration Review 17-20.
65. H. Crawley, Refugees and Gender: Law and Process (Jordan Publishing Ltd, 2001) 7 (emphasis added).
66. Immigration and Refugee Board (IRB), Guidelines Issued by the Chairperson Pursuant to Section 65(3) of the Immigration Act, 'Guideline 4: Women Refugee Claimants Fearing Gender-Related Persecution', (Update effective 8 July 1999, Ottawa, Canada) at 2, 5.
67. 62 Considerations for Asylum Officers Adjudicating Asylum Claims From Women (Memorandum from Phyllis Coven, Office of International Affairs, US Immigration and Naturalization Service, to all INS Asylum Officers HQASM Coordinators, 26 May 1995).
68. DIMA, Guidelines on. Gender Issues for Decision Makers, n. 11 above at para. 2.10.
69. In the case of Australia as explained below, this is indirect.
70. Immigration Appellate Authority, Asylum Gender Guidelines (United Kingdom, 2000) at www.ein.org.uk/iaa.
71. N. Berkowitz, 'Gender guidelines for the UK', (2000) 9 Forced Migration Review 21.
72. DIMA, Guidelines on Gender Issues for Decision Makers, n. 11 above.
73. Ibid., at para. 2.2.
74. Ibid., at para. 4.3-4.10.
75. Ibid., at para. 4.9.
76. Ibid., at para. 4.10. Note the reference to forced marriage, forced abortion and female genital mutilation.
77. Ibid., at para. 4.30.
78. Ibid., al para. 4.25.
79. Ibid., at para. 4.26.
80. Ibid., at para. 4.27.
81. Cf. ibid., at paras. 3.5 and 3.12 which indireclly refer to it in the Procedures section.
82. A. Macklin, 'Cross-Border Shopping for Ideas: A Critical Review of US, Canadian and Australian Approaches to Gender-Related Asylum Claims' Georgetown Law Journal 13 (1998) 25-70 at 48. Cf Khawar v. MIMA [2000] 59 ALD 668 at 677 per Branson J.
83. JC. Hathaway, The Law of Refugee Status (Butterworths, 1991) at 103.
84. nd ed., 1992), at para. 51.
85. [1989] 169 CLR 379.
86. For example, Prathapan v. MIEA [1997] 47 ALD 41 - an act of chemical spraying by LTTEE in France was evidence of harassment for Convention reason.
87. [1989] 169 CLR 379 at 429-430. See also ibid, per Mason CJ at 388.
88. Ibid., at 430 per McHugh J.
89. I b i d.
90. Art. 1.
91. ESOC, 'Integration of the Human Rights of Women and the Gender Perspective: Violence Against Women, UN doc. E/CN.4/3003/75, 6 Jan. 2003, Executive summary 2.
92. I b i d.
93. B. Ankenbrand, 'Refugee Women Under German Asylum Law', 14 IJRL 45-55 at 46 (1989);
94. K. Musalo et al, Refugee Law and Policy: A Comparative Approach (Carolina Academic Press, 2002) at 645-673.
95. DIMIA, Refugee and Humanitarian Division, Gender-Related Persecution (Art. 1A(2)): An Australian Perspective - a Paper Prepared as a Contribution to the UNHCR's Expert Roundtable Series (Canberra, 2002) at 86 at www.immi.gov.au/refugee/publications/convention2002/08_gender.pdl).
96. Omar v. MIMA [2000] 104 FCR 187.
97. The Australian guidelines, n. 11 above, para. 4.25 and 4.29.
98. RSAA, 16 Aug. 2000.
99. Ibid., at para. 7.
100. IRB, Guidelines above n. 61, 5.
101. 21I & N Dec 77 (BIA 1993).
102. Crawley, n. 60 above, 30.
103. 21 I & N Dec 357 (BIA 1996).
104. Cf. Ankenbrand n. 88 above, 52 where it is stated that in Germany FGM is sometimes disputed on the basis of stale responsibility - see discussion below, or the 'internal flight' option.
105. 21 I & N Dec 357 at para. 45 per Member Rosenberg.
106. [2000] 59 ALD 758.
107. [2000] FCA 1026 (3 Aug. 2000).
108. Ibid., at para. 17.
109. RSAA, 16 Aug. 2000.
110. Ibid., at para. 86.
111. Ibid., at para. 108.
112. Ankenbrand n. 88 above, 50 citing Higher Administrative Court Luneburg 18 May 1999 - 7 L 3758/96.
113. th dir 1996).
114. See also Fatin v. INS 12 F3d 1233 (3d Cir 1993).
115. [2000] 59 ALD 758.
116. For example, Matter of R-A-, Interim Decision 3403, 2001 BIA LEXIS 1 (AC 2001; BIA 1999) discussed by K. Musalo and S. Knight, 'Steps Forward and Steps Back: Uneven Progress in the Law of Social Group and Gender-Based Claims in the United States', 13 IJRL, 51-70 (2001).
117. Ankenbrand, n. 88 above, 48-49.
118. Moradgholi v. MIMA [2000] FCA 13 (12 Jan. 2000).
119. Refugees Convention, Art. 3.
120. See also ICCPR, Art. 3.
121. Note that the Guidelines prepared by the DIMA, (DIMA, Guidelines on Gender Issues for Decision-Makers 1996, n. 11 above, at para. 2.2 set out the international instruments which protect the human rights of women.
122. Entered into force on 3 Sept. 1981 in accordance with Art. 27(1).
123. Art. 1.
124. Emphasis added.
125. DIMIA, Gender-Related Persecution, n. 89 above at 93-96, 103. This argument was presented by the Minister in MIMA s. Khawar [2000] 67 ALD 577.
126. UNHCR, 'Guidelines on International Protection: "Membership of a particular social group" within the context of Art. 1A(2)' UN doc. HCR/GTP/02/02, 7 May 2002.
127. Ibid., at B, para 11.
128. (1997) 190 CLR 225.
129. Ibid., at 241.
130. [1993] 2 SCR 689.
131. Ibid., at 739.
132. Note that the claims of homosexuals and transgendered people have also been accepted on this basis. Walker, n. 55 above.
133. A notable exception is the House of Lords decision in Islam v. Home Department; R v. Immigration Appeal Tribunal ex parte Shah [1999] 2 AC 629 discussed in the text below.
134. Note that the claims of homosexuals and transgendered people overlap with 'political opinion'.
135. Immigration and Refugee Board, Guideline 4, Women Refugee Claimants Fearing Gender-Related Persecution: UPDATE (25 Nov. 1996) at 6, 7, 8 and 9.
136. Ibid., at 3.
137. Ibid., at 3. The issues regarding 'persecution' are discussed below.
138. Crawley n. 60 above, 26.
139. Gender-Related Persecution n. 89 above, 99.
140. UPDATE, n. 127 above, 8. The same point was made by some members of the High Court of Australia in MIMA v. Khawar (Khawar) [2000] 67 ALD 577. For example, McHugh and Gummow JJ at para. 82, Kirby J at para. 127.
141. [2000] 67 ALD 577.
142. Ibid., at para. 35.
143. SDAV v. MIMA; MIMA v. SBBK [2003] FCAFC 129 (13 June 2003). Cf. NAFF v. MIMA [2003] FCA 301 where the applicat's claims were categorised as 'domestic violence', as they involved physical violence from her stepbrother. In this case applying Khawar it was found that there was no singling out of a particular social group of which the applicant was a member. But meanwhile the High Court has found in Dranichnikov v. MIMA [2003] HCA 26, a social group constituting 'entrepreneurs and businessmen in Russia who publicly criticised law enforcement authorities for failing to take action against crime or criminals' and in Appellant S395/2002 v. MIMA [2003] HCA 71 (9 Dec. 2003) homosexual men in Bangladesh.
144. [1999] 2 AC 629.
145. Lord Steyn and Lord Hutton also found they were 'members of a particular social group' because of other more narrowly defined characteristics such as being suspected of adultery.
146. [2000] 67 ALD 577, at para. 33.
147. Ibid., at para. 81.
148. [2000] 67 ALD 577, at para. 129.
149. RSAA, 16 Aug. 2000.
150. See also SDAV v. MIMA; MIMA v. SBBK [2003] FCAFC 129 (13 June 2003) applying Khawar to the cases of two Iranian women. In these cases, it was expressly argued that the social group overlapped with religious or political status of the applicants but the Court did not specifically consider that argument.
151. Elmi v. MIMA [2000] 59 AID 621.
152. [1993] 45 FCR 418.
153. Abdalla v. MIMA [1998] 51 AID 11; Jama v. MIMA [2000] 58 ALD 420 affirmed [1990] FCA 1680; Mendis v. MIMA [2000] 59 ALD 84; Thalary v. MIEA [1998] 50 AID 349.
154. Elmi v. MIMA [2000] 59 ALD 621.
155. [2000] 59 ALD 84.
156. [2000] FCA 1026 (3 Aug. 2000).
157. Ibid., at para. 17.
158. N. Lacey, 'Theory into Practice? Pornography and the Public/Private Dichotomy' in F.E Olsen (cd.) Feminist Legal Theory, Foundations and Outlooks (Vol. I, Dartmouth, 1985), 355-375.
159. Adopted and proclaimed by the UN General Assembly resolution 217A(III) on 10 Dec. 1948.
160. See also Art. 10.1 ICESCR;
161. An. 23.1 JCCPR
162. P. Mathew, 'Conformity or Persecution: China's One Child Policy and Refugee Status' (2000) 23 UNSW Law Journal 103-133.
163. Knecbone, 'Case Note: Refugee test and the "one child policy": Applicant A v. Minister for Immigration & Ethnic Affairs' (1997) 4 AJ Admin L 173-180.
164. See also Art. 17 JCCPR.
165. N. Blake QC & R. Husain, Immigration, Asylum and Human Rights (Blackstone's Human Rights Series, OUP, 2003), 165-210, para. 4.2 points out that the word 'respect' indicates that Art. 8 contains a negative right in that the state is required not to interfere with family life.
166. CS. Anderfuhren-Wayne, 'Family Unity in Immigration and Refugee Matters', 8 IJRL 347-382 (1996).
167. See also ICCPR Art. 17.1, 23.2.
168. Crawley n. 60 above, 18.
169. See also IESCR Art. 11.
170. K. Jastram & K. Newland 'Family unit and refugee protection' in E. Feller, V. Türk & F. Nicholson (eds.), Refugee Protection in International Law, UNHCR's Global Consultations on International Protection, (CUP, 2003) 555 at 566.
171. [2002] 67 ALD 577 at 585, para. 33.
172. Note 11 above, para. 4.24, paras. 4.26-4.28.
173. th Cir 2001).
174. [1999] 95 FCR 517; (Sarrazola No. 2) [2001] 107 FCR 184. The history of this litigation is discussed by A. de Costa, 'Assessing the Cause and Effect of Persecution in Australian Refugee Law: Sarrazola, Khawar and the Migration Legislation Amendment Act (No. 6) 2001 (Cth)' (2002) 30 Federal Law Review 535-559.
175. The court also dismissed the motivation argument suggesting that it was unreliable as motivations often involve mixed purposes.
176. Sarrazola No. 2 [2001] 107 FLR 184 at 195 per Merkel J. Emphasis added. Note that at ibid. 193 Merkel J stressed Art. 16.3 of the UDHR discussed below.
177. [1999] 94 FCR 366; [2000] 59 ALD 643.
178. See also Giraldo v. MIMA [2001] FCA 113 (23 Feb. 2001) per Sackville J.
179. [1999] FCA 79 (12 Feb. 1999) per O'Connor J.
180. Ibid., at. para. 21.
181. The decision in Applicant A v. MIEA (1997) 190 CLR 225 was applied.
182. [2000] FCA 42 (1 Feb. 2000) per Burchett J.
183. Migration Act 1958, s 91S added by Migration Legislation Amendment Bill (No. 6) 2001.
184. Section 91S needs to be read with s. 91R of the same Act which is discussed in the text below.
185. Commonwealth of Australia, Department of the Parliamentary Library, Information and Research Services, Bills Digest No. 552001-02, Migration Legislation Amendment Bill (No. 6) 2001, 18 Sept. 2001.
186. [1997] 190 CLR 225 at 241 per Dawson J.
187. Hathaway, n. 78 above, 166;
188. nd ed., 1996), 30.
189. [2003] FCA 299 (per French J, 3 Apr. 2003). See also SZABL v. Minister for Immigration [2003] FMCA 304 (per Raphael FM, 25 July 2003).
190. Ankenbrand, n. 88 above, 53. Contrast Lazo-Majano n. INS 813 F 2d 1432 (1987).
191. Macklin, n. 77 above.
192. Adjin-Tetty, n. 6 above.
193. Meanwhile Ndege had been followed in a number of cases: Khan v. MIMA [2000] FCA 105 (15 Feb. 2000); Miloseveska v. MIMA [1999] FCA 1414 (13 Oct. 1999); Hui Quin Li v. MIMA [1999] FCA 751 (1 June 1999).
194. For example MIMA v. Ndege [2000] 59 ALD 758.
195. [2000] 67 ALD 577.
196. [19991 2 AC 629.
197. For example Milosevaka v. MIMA [1999] FCA 1414 (13 Oct 1999); Jayawardene v. MIMA [1998] 60 ALD 425.
198. th Cir 2001).
199. Which had been applied by the dissenting judge in the Full Federal Court decision, adopting the reasoning of Weinberg J in the Ndege case.
200. S. Kneebone, 'Moving Beyond the State: Refugees, Accountability and Protection' in Kneebone, n. 4 above.
201. Ankenbrand, n. 88 above, 50.
202. J. Greatbach, 'The Gender Discourse: Feminist Critique of Refugee Discourse', 4 IJRL 518-527 (1989).
203. Chen Shi Hai v. MIMA [2000] 201 CLR 293.
204. DIMA, Guidelines on Gender issues for Decision-Makers, n. 11 above, para 3.5.
205. UPDATE n. 127 above, 10.
206. The Advertiser, 'Beaten wives given asylum; Political refugees to suffer', 16 Dec. 1996.
207. The Australian, 'Ruddock flags tougher line on refugee bids', 26 Dec. 1996, at 1.
208. S. Legomsky, 'Refugees, Administrative Tribunals, and Real Indpendence: Dangers Ahead for Australia' (1998) 76 Washington University Law Quarterly 243-254.
209. Hunter, n. 21 above. DIMIA, Gender-Related Persecution, above n. 89 at 96.
210. Migration Act 1958, s 91R(1)(a) added by Migration Legislation Amendment Bill (No. 6) 2001.
211. 'Serious harm' is defined to include: • A threat to a person's lift or liberty; or • Significant physical harassment or ill-treatment; or • Significant economic hardship that threatens the persons capacity to subsist; or • Denial of access to basic services, which threatens the capacity to subsist; or • Denial of capacity to earn a livelihood, which threatens the capacity to subsist.
212. Hunter n. 21 above.
213. C. Muller-Hoff, n. 3 above.
214. Cf Refugee Act 1996 (Ireland) s 1(1) which includes 'female' or 'male sex' in the meaning of 'social group' in the refugee definition.
215. S. Cauchi, M-J. Ierodiaconou and A. Perry in coalition with Feminist Lawyers and Women Rights Action Network Australia, The Invisible Women: A Report on Gender Based Persecution Claims by Women Asylum Seekers in Australia (Melbourne, Nov. 2003).
216. For example, para. 2A.16 states: 'Gender-specific, harm does not differ analytically from other forms of ill-treatment and violence that are commonly held to amount to persecution ... '.
217. For example, paras. 2A.9-2A.10. Note that the issue of non-state agents is dealt with specifically in Section 2B.