Gravity Effects on Life Processes in Aquatic Animals

Advances in Space Biology and Medicine

Volumn 10, Issue , 2005, Pages 247-301

  Horn, Eberhard R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ULM   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; ANIMAL; ANIMAL MODEL; BONE DEVELOPMENT; BONE MINERALIZATION; FERTILIZATION; FISH; FLIGHT EXPERIMENT; GENE; GRAVITY; LONG DURATION; MANNED; MIR PROJECT; MUSCLE; NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTION; PHYSIOLOGY; REGENERATION; REVIEW; SHORT DURATION; SOUNDING ROCKET; SPACE FLIGHT; STS SHUTTLE PROJECT; SWIMMING; SYNAPSE; UNMANNED; VESTIBULE; VESTIBULOOCULAR REFLEX;

FLIGHT EXPERIMENT; LONG DURATION; MANNED; MIR PROJECT; SHORT DURATION; SOUNDING ROCKET; STS SHUTTLE PROJECT; UNMANNED;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; ANIMALS; BONE DEVELOPMENT; CALCIFICATION, PHYSIOLOGIC; FERTILIZATION; FISHES; GENES; GRAVITATION; MODELS, ANIMAL; MUSCLES; NERVOUS SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY; OTOLITHIC MEMBRANE; REFLEX, VESTIBULO-OCULAR; REGENERATION; SPACE FLIGHT; SWIMMING; SYNAPSES;

EID: 24044498330     PISSN: 15692574     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/S1569-2574(05)10010-0     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Anken R., and Bourrat F. Brain atlas of the medaka fish (1998), INRA editions, Paris
2. Anken R.H., Edelmann E., and Rahmann H. Neuronal feedback between brain and inner ear for growth of otoliths in fish. Adv. Space Res. 30 4 (2002) 829-833
3. Anken R.H., Ibsch M., and Rahmann H. Neurobiology of fish under altered gravity conditions. Brain Res. Rev. 28(1-2) (1998) 9-18
4. Anken R.H., Kappel T., Slenzka K., and Rahmann H. The early morphogenetic development of the cichlid fish Oreochromis mossambicus (Perciformes, Teleostei). Zool. Anz. 231 (1993) 1-10
5. Anken R.H., and Rahmann H. Influence of long-term hyper-gravity on the reactivity of succinic acid dehydrogenase and NADPH-diaphorase in the central nervous system of fish: a histochemical study. Adv. Space Res. 22 2 (1998) 281-285
6. nd German Spacelab Mission D-2. Adv. Space Res. 17 6-7 (1996) 281-284
7. Anken R., Werner K., Ibsch M., and Rahmann H. Fish inner ear otolith size and bilateral asymmetry during development. Hear. Res. 121 (1998) 77-81
8. Balaban E., Centini C., and Pompeiano P. Tonic gravity changes alter gene expression in the efferent vestibular nucleus. NeuroReport 13 (2002) 187-190
9. Ballarino J., and Howland H. Centrifugation of 2g does not affect otoconial mineralisation in chick embryos. Amer. J. Physiol. 246 (1984) 305-318
10. Bäuerle A., Anken R.H., Hilbig R., and Rahmann H. Histology of the utricle in kinetotically swimming fish: a parabolic aircraft flight study. Acta Otolaryngol. 124 (2004) 19-22
11. Bechterew W. Ergebnisse der Durchschneidung des N. acusticus, nebst Erörterung der Bedeutung der semicirculären Kanäle für das Körpergleichgewicht. Pflügers Arch. Ges. Physiol. 30 (1883) 312-347
12. Böser S. Die Entwicklung motorischer Systeme und ihre Anpassung an veränderte Gravitationsbedingungen beim Krallenfrosch (Xenopus laevis) (2003), Dissertation, University of Karlsruhe, Germany
13. Böser S., and Horn E. Hypergravity exposure affects ventral root activity in tadpoles (Xenopus laevis). J. Grav. Physiol. 9 (2002) 209-210
14. Böser S., Dournon C., Gualandris-Parisot L., and Horn E. Ventral root recordings during fictive swimming in tadpoles (Xenopus laevis) with microgravity or hypergravity experience. Gravit. Space Biol. Bull. 16 (2002) 31
15. Boyle R., Mensinger A.F., Yoshida K., Usui S., Intravaia A., Tricas T., and Highstein S.M. Neural readaptation to Earth's gravity following return from space. J. Neurophysiol. 86 (2000) 2118-2122
16. Bozler E. Sinnes- und neurophysiologische Untersuchungen an Scyphomedusen. Z. vergl. Physiol. 4 (1926) 37-80
17. Bracchi F., Gualierotti T., Morabito A., and Rocca E. Multiday recordings from the primary neurons of the statoreceptors of the labyrinth of the bullfrog. Acta Otolaryngol. (Stockh) Suppl. 334 (1975) 3-27
18. Cherdantseva E. Embryonic development of guppies in weightlessness [Russian]. Kosmicheskaia Biologiia I Aviakosmicheskaia Meditsina 21 5 (1987) 22-25
19. Clément G., Moore S.T., Raphan T., and Cohen B. Perception of tilt (somatogravic illusion) in response to sustained linear acceleration during space flight. Exp. Brain Res. 138 (2001) 410-418
20. Dale N. An experimentally derived model for the locomotor pattern generator in the Xenopus embryo. J. Physiol. 489 (1995) 489-510
21. Daunton N.G., Ross M.D., Fox R.A., Corcoran M.L., Cutler L.K., and Wu L.C. Effects of chronic hypergravity on the righting reflex and vestibular endorgan morphology in the rat. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 17 (1991) 316
22. Dews P.B., and Wiesel T.N. Consequences of monocular deprivation on visual behaviour in kittens. J. Physiol. 206 (1970) 437-455
23. Degens E.T., Deuser W.G., and Haedrich R.L. Molecular structure and composition of fish otoliths. Mar. Biol. 2 (1969) 105-113
24. Dieringer N. 'Vestibular compensation': Neural plasticity and its relations to functional recovery after labyrinthine lesions in frogs and other vertebrates. Prog. Neurobiol. 46 (1995) 97-129
25. Dournon C., Membre H., Böser S., and Horn E. An European pupil project linked to the scientific aims of the experiment Aquarius-Xenopus on the taxi soyuz flight Andromède to ISS. J. Gravitat. Physiol. 9 1 (2002) P375-P376
26. Dournon C. Developmental biology of urodele amphibians in microgravity conditions. Adv. Space Res. 9 (2003) 101-131
27. Duprat A.M., Husson D., and Gualandris-Parisot L. Does gravity influence the early stages of the development of the nervous system in an amphibian? Brain Res. Rev. 28 (1998) 19-24
28. Feitek M., Souza K., Neff A., and Wassersug R. Swimming kinematics and respiratory behaviour of Xenopus laevis larvae raised in altered gravity. J. Exp. Biol. 201 (1998) 1917-1926
29. Fermin C.D., Martin D.S., Li Y.T., and Li S.C. The glycan ketatan sulfate in inner ear crystals. Cell. Mol. Biol. 41 (1995) 577-591
30. Fluck R.A., Krok K.L., Bast B.A., Michaud S.E., and Kim C.E. Gravity influences the position of the dorsoventral axis in medaka fish (Oryzias latipes). Dev. Growth Differ. 40 5 (1998) 509-518
31. Fraenkel G. Der statische Sinn der Medusen. Z. vergl. Physiol. 2 (1925) 658-690
32. Furukawa R., and Ijiri K. Swimming behaviour of larval Medaka fish under microgravity. Adv. Space Res. 30 4 (2002) 733-738
33. Gallien L., and Durocher M. Table chronologique du développement chez Pleurodeles waltl (Michah). Bull. Biol. Fr. Belg. 91 (1957) 97-114
34. Gauldie R.W. Continuous and discontinuous growth in the otolith of Macruronus novaezelandiae (Merlucciidae: Teleostei). J. Morphol. 216 (1993) 271-294
35. Gilbert S.F. Developmental Biology (2003), Sinauer Associates, Inc., Publishers, Sunderland, Massachusetts
36. Gillette-Gerguson I., Ferguson D.G., Poss K.D., and Moorman S.J. Changes in gravitational force induce alterations in gene expression that can be monitored in the live, developing zebrafish heart. Adv. Space Res. 32 8 (2003) 1641-1646
37. Goto F., Straka H., and Dieringer N. Postlesional vestibular reorganization in frogs: evidence for a basic reaction pattern after nerve injury. J. Neurophysiol. 85 (2001) 2643-2646
38. Grant S., Dawes E.A., and Keating M.J. The critical period for experience-dependent plasticity in a system of binocular visual connections in Xenopus laevis: its extension by dark-rearing. Eur. J. Neurosci. 4 (1992) 37-45
39. Grigoryan E.N., Mitashov V.I., and Anton H.J. Urodelean amphibian in studies on microgravity: effects upon organ and tissue regeneration. Adv. Space Res. 30 (2002) 757-764
40. Grinfeld, S., Foulquiere, F., Mitashov, V., Bruchlilnskaia, N., Duprat, A.M. (1994) Tissue regeneration in space (spinal cord, muscle and bone) in the amphibian Pleurodeles waltl. ESA SP-366, 181-184
41. Gruener R., and Hoeger G. Vector-free gravity disrupts synapse formation in cell culture. Amer. J. Physiol. 258 (1990) 489-494
42. Gruener R., Roberts R., and Reitstetter R. Reduced receptor aggregation and altered cytoskeleton in cultured myocytes after space-flight. Uchu Seibtutsu Kagaku. 8 (1994) 79-93
43. Gualandris-Parisot L., Husson D., Foulquier F., Kan P., Davet J., Aimar C.H., Dournon C., and Duprat A.M. Pleurodeles waltl, amphibian, urodele, is a suitable biological model for embryological and physiological space experiments on a vertebrate. Adv. Space Res. 28 4 (2001) 569-578
44. Gualandris-Parisot L., Husson D., Bautz A., Durand D., Aimar C., Membre H., Duprat A.M., and Dournon C. Effects of space environment on the embryonic development up to hatching of salamander eggs fertilised and developed during orbital flights. Biol. Sci. Space 16 (2002) 3-11
45. Haddon C., and Lewis J. Early ear development in the embryo of the zebrafish, Danio rerio. J. comp. Neurol. 365 (1996) 113-128
46. Hara H., Sekitani T., Kido T., Endo S., Ikeda T., and Takahashi M. Fine structure of utricle of developing chick embryo exposed to 2g gravity. Acta Otolaryng. (Stockh.) 519 (1995) 257-263
47. Helling K., Hausmann S., Flottmann T., and Scherer H. Untersuchungen zur interindividuellen unterschiedlichen Kinetoseempfindlichkeit. HNO 45 (1997) 210-215
48. Helling K., Hausmann S., Clarke A., and Scherer H. Experimentally induced motion sickness in fish: possible role of the otolith organ. Acta Oto-Laryngol. 123 4 (2003) 488-492
49. Hilbig R., Anken R.H., Sonntag G., Höhne S., Henneberg J., Kretschmer N., and Rahmann H. Effects of altered gravity on the swimming behaviour of fish. Adv. Space Res. 30 4 (2002) 835-841
50. Hoffman R.B., Boyd S.J., von Baumgarten R.J., and Baky A.A. Behavioural analyses of killifish exposed to weightlessness in the Apollo-Soyuz test project. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 48 (1977) 712-717
51. Hoffman R.B., Salinas G.A., Boyd S.J., von Baumgarten R.J., and Baky A.A. Effect of prehatching weightlessness on adult fish behaviour in dynamic environments. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 49 (1978) 576-581
52. Horn E. Funktionelle Entwicklung der Schweresinnesorgane bei Insekten und Vertebraten. DFVLR-Mitt. 85 16 (1985) 121-128
53. Horn E. The development of gravity sensory systems during periods of altered gravity dependent sensory input. Adv. Space Biol. Med. 9 (2003) 133-171
54. Horn E. (2004) "Critical periods" in vestibular development or adaptation of gravity sensory systems to altered gravitational conditions? Arch. Ital. Biol. 142, 155-174
55. Horn, E.R., Dournon, C., Gualandris-Parisot, L., Böser, S. (2003) The development of vestibular structures and functions of tadpoles (Xenopus laevis) in the absence of gravity. Soc. Neurosci., Abstract, Program No. 40.6
56. Horn E., and Sebastian C. A hypergravity related sensitive period during the development of the roll induced vestibuloocular reflex in an amphibian (Xenopus laevis). Neurosci. Lett. 216 (1996) 25-28
57. Horn E., and Sebastian C. Adaptation of the macular vestibuloocular reflex to altered gravitational conditions in a fish (Oreochromis mossambicus). Adv. Space Res. 30 4 (2002) 711-720
58. Horn E., Lang H.G., and Rayer B. The development of the static vestibulo-ocular reflex in the Southern Clawed Toad, Xenopus laevis Daudin: I. Intact animals. J. Comp. Physiol. 159A (1986) 869-878
59. Horn E., Mack R., and Lang H.G. The development of the static vestibulo-ocular reflex in the Southern Clawed Toad, Xenopus laevis Daudin: II. Animals with acute vestibular lesions. J. Comp. Physiol. 159A (1986) 879-885
60. Hubel D.H., and Wiesel T.N. The period of susceptibility to the physiological effects of unilateral eye closure in kittens. J. Physiol. 206 (1970) 419-436
61. Husson D., Gualandris-Parisot L., Foulquier F., Grinfeld S., Kann P., and Duprat A.M. Differentiation in microgravity of neural and muscle cells of a vertebrate (amphibian). Adv. Space Res. 22 (1998) 303-308
62. Ibsch M., Anken R.H., and Rahmann H. Weightlessness during spaceflight results in enhanced synapse formation in a fish brain vestibular nucleus. Neurosci. Lett. 296 (2000) 13-16
63. Ijiri K. Explanations for a video version of the first vertebrate mating in space - A fish story. Biol. Sci. Space 11 (1997) 153-167
64. Ijiri K. Development of space-fertilised eggs and formation of primordial germ cells in the embryos of Medaka fish. Adv. Space Res. 21 8-9 (1998) 1155-1158
65. Ijiri K. Vestibular and visual contribution to fish behaviour under microgravity. Adv. Space Res. 25 (2000) 1997-2006
66. Ijiri K. Life-cycle experiments of Medaka fish aboard the International Space Station. Adv. Space Biol. Med. 9 (2003) 201-216
67. Izumi-Kurotani A., Yamashita M., Kawasaki Y., Kurotani T., Mogami Y., Okuno M., Oketa A., Shiraishi A., Ueda K., Wassersug R.J., and Naitoh T. Behaviour of Japanese tree frogs under microgravity on Mir and in parabolic flight. Adv. Space Res. 14 8 (1994) 419-422
68. Izumi-Kurotani A., and Kiyomoto M. Morphogenesis and gravity in a whole amphibian embryo and in isolated blastomeres of sea urchins. Dev. Biol. Res. Space 9 (2003) 83-99
69. Kahn J.A., Roberts A., and Kashin S.M. The neuromuscular basis of swimming movements in embryos of the amphibian Xenopus laevis. J. Exp. Biol. 99 (1982) 175-184
70. Kahn J.A., and Roberts A. The central nervous origin of the swimming motor pattern in embryos of Xenopus laevis. J. Exp. Biol. 99 (1982) 185-196
71. Keating M.J., and Grant S. The critical period for experience-dependent plasticity in a system of binocular visual connections in Xenopus laevis: its temporal profile and relation to normal developmental requirements. Eur. J. Neurosci. 4 (1992) 27-36
72. Kido T., and Takahashi M. Scanning electron microscopic study of amphibians otoconia. Auris Nasus Larynx 24 (1997) 125-130
73. Kimmel C.B., Ballard W.W., Kimmel S.R., Ullmann B., and Schilling T.F. Stages of embryonic development of the zebrafish. Dev. Dyn. 203 (1995) 253-310
74. Knudsen E.I., Knudsen P.F., and Esterley S.D. A critical period for the recovery of sound localization accuracy following monoaural occlusion in the barn owl. J. Neurosci. 4 (1984) 1012-1020
75. Koike H., Nakamura K., Nishimura K., Kashima I., Wiederhold M.L., and Asashima M. Non-invasive assessment of otolith formation during development of the Japanese red-bellied newt, Cynops pyrrhogaster. Hear. Res. 88 (1995) 206-214
76. Komazaki S. Gravitational effects on apoptosis of presumptive ectodermal cells of amphibian embryo. J. Exp. Zool. A: Comp. Exp. Biol. 301 (2004) 204-211
77. Krasnow I.B. Quantitative histochemistry of the vestibular cerebellum of the fish Fundulus heteroclitus flown aboard the biosatellite COSMOS-782. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 48 (1977) 808-811
78. Lewis E.R., and Pawley J.B. Direct SEM study of frozen inner ear. Scanning 4 (1981) 131-140
79. Lim D., Stith J., and Stockwell C. Observations on sacculus of rats exposed to longterm hypergravity. Aerospace Med. 45 (1974) 705-710
80. Llinás R., and Precht W. Frog Neurobiology (1976), Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York
81. Lychakov D.V. Functional and adaptive changes in the vestibular apparatus in space flight. The Physiologist 34 (1991) S205-S206
82. Marmo F., Balsamo G., and Franco E. The formation of otoliths in the frog Rana esculenta. Scanning electron microscopic and X-ray diffraction studies. Acta. Zool. 67 (1983) 533-561
83. Marmo F., Balsamo G., and Franco E. Calcite in the statoconia of amphibians: A detailed analysis in the frog Rana esculenta. Cell Tiss. Res. 233 (1983) 35-43
84. Marthy H.-J. Sea urchin eggs under microgravity conditions. ESA SP-1206 (1997) 81-91
85. Marthy H.-J., Gasset G., Tixador R., Schatt P., Eche B., Dessommes A., Giacommi T., Tap G., and Gorand D. The sea urchin larvae, a suitable model for biomineralisation studies in space (IML-2 ESA Biorack experiment "24-F urchin"). J. Biotechnol. 47 (1996) 167-177
86. Marthy H.J., Bacchieri R., Gasset G., Eche B., and Gorand D. Sea urchin development in space as revealed by skeletogenesis. ESA SP-1222 (1999) 139-148
87. Massion J. Postural control system. Curr. Opinion Neurobiol. 4 (1994) 877-887
88. Marxen J.C., Reelsen O., and Becker W. Embryonic development of the freshwater snail Biomphalaria glabrata under microgravity conditions (STS-89 mission). J. Grav. Physiol. 8 (2001) 29-36
89. Meyer D.L., Heiligenberg W., and Bullock T.H. The ventral substrate response. A new postural control mechanism in fishes. J. Comp. Physiol. 109 (1976) 59-68
90. Mitashov V.I., Grigoryan E.N., Brushlinskaya N.V., Tuchova S.Y., and Anton H.J. Regeneration of organs and tissues in lower vertebrates during and after space flight. Adv. Space Res. 17 6/7 (1996) 241-255
91. Mitashov V.I., Grigoryan E.N., Tuchova S.Y., and Cherdanzeva. Organs and tissue regeneration of in amphibian under the space flight conditions. ESA SP-271 (1987) 299-303
92. Moorman S.J., Burress C., Cordova R., and Slater J. Stimulus dependence of the development of the zebrafish (Danio rerio) vestibular system. J. Neurobiol. 38 (1999) 247-258
93. Moorman S.J., Cordova R., and Davies S.A. A critical period for functional vestibular development in zebrafish. Dev. Dyn. 223 (2002) 285-291
94. Moorman S.J. There are two different critical periods for zebrafish vestibular development. FASEB Journal 15 5 (2001) A743
95. Mori S., Mitarai G., Takabayashi A., Usui S., Sakakibara M., Nagatomo M., and von Baumgartner R.J. Evidence for sensory conflict and recovery in carp exposed to prolonged weightlessness. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 67 3 (1996) 256-261
96. Mori S., Mitarai G., Takagi S., Takabayashi A., Usui S., Nakamura T., Sakakibara M., Nagatomo M., and von Baumgartner R.J. Space experiment using large-sized fish: in case of carp in Spacelab-J mission. Acta. Astronautica 33 (1994) 41-47
97. Naitoh T., Wassersug R.J., and Leslie R.A. The physiology, morphology, and ontogeny of emetic behaviour in anuran amphibians. Physiol. Zool. 62 (1989) 819-843
98. Neubert J., Briegleb W., Schatz A., Hertwig I., and Kruse B. The response of structure and function of the gravireceptor in a vertebrate to near weightlessness. Acta Astronautica 17 (1988) 257-262
99. Neubert J., Briegleb W., Schatz A., Kruse B., Hertwig J., and Horn E. Synopsis of the spacelab D-1 statolith experiment STATEX. ESA SP-271 (1987) 241-248
100. Nieuwkoop P.D., and Faber J. Normal Table of Xenopus laevis (Daudin) (1967), North Holland, Amsterdam
101. Nishiwaki Y., Ijiri K., Satoh T., Tokunaga F., and Morita T. Retinal Photoreceptors and related gene expression is normal in clinostat-treated fish embryos. Adv. Space Res. 23 12 (1999) 2045-2048
102. Oakley B. The gustatory competence of the lingual epithelium requires neonatal innervation. Dev. Brain Res. 72 (1993) 259-264
103. Ohnishi T., Tsuji K., Ohmura T., Matsumoto H., Wang X., Takahashi A., Nagaoka S., Takabayashi A., and Takahahsi A. Accumulation of stress protein 72 (HSP72) in muscle and spleen of goldfish taken into space. Adv. Space Res. 21 8-9 (1998) 1077-1080
104. Pedrozo H.A., and Wiederhold M.L. Effects of hypergravity on statocyst development in embryonic Aplysia californica. Hear. Res. 79 (1994) 137-146
105. Pedrozo H.A., Schwartz Z., Luther M., Dean D.D., Boyan B.D., and Wiederhold M.L. A mechanism of adaptation to hypergravity in the statocyst of Aplysia californica. Hear. Res. 102 (1996) 51-62
106. Pompeiano O., d'Ascanio P., Centini C., Pompeiano M., and Balaban E. Gene expression in rat vestibular and reticular structures during and after space flight. Neuroscience 114 (2002) 135-155
107. Pote K.G., and Ross M.D. Utricular otoconia of some amphibians have calcitic morphology. Hear. Res. 67 (1993) 189-197
108. Precht W., and Dieringer N. Neuronal events paralleling functional recovery (compensation) following peripheral vestibular lesions. In: Berthoz A., and Melvill Jones G. (Eds). Adaptive mechanisms in gaze control: Facts and theories (1985), Elsevier Science Publ BV, Amsterdam, New York, Oxford 251-268
109. Pronych S., and Wassersug R.J. Lung use and development in Xenopus laevis tadpoles. Can. J. Zool. 72 (1994) 738-743
110. Rahmann H., Slenzka K.H., Körtje K.H., and Hilbig R. Synaptic plasticity and gravity: Ultrastructural, biochemical and physiochemical fundamentals. Adv. Space Res. 12 1 (1992) 163-172
111. Rayer B., Cagol E., and Horn E. Compensation of vestibular-induced deficits in relation to the development of the Southern Clawed Toad, Xenopus laevis DAUDIN. J. Comp. Physiol. 151 (1983) 487-498
112. Reitstetter R., and Gruener R. Vector-averaged gravity does not alter acetylcholine receptor single channel properties. Uchu Seibtutsu Kagaku. 8 (1994) 71-78
113. Reschke M.F. Statistical prediction of space motion sickness. In: Crampton G.H. (Ed). Motion and space sickness (1990), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fl 263-316
114. Riley B.B., and Moorman S.J. Development of utricular otoliths, but not saccular otoliths, is necessary for vestibular function and survival in zebrafish. J. Neurobiol. 43 (2000) 329-337
115. Ris L., and Godaux E. Neuronal activity in the vestibular nuclei after contralateral or bilateral labyrinthectomy in the alert guinea pig. J. Neurophysiol. 80 (1998) 2352-2367
116. Ross M.D., Donovan K., and Chee O. Otoconial morphology in space-flown rats. The Physiologist 28 Suppl. (1985) 219-226
117. Ross M.D. Synaptic plasticity in utricular maculas of rats exposed to microgravity. ASGSB Bull. 6 (1992) 100
118. Ryu J.H., and McCabe B.F. Central vestibular compensation. Effects of the bilateral labyrinthectomy on neural activity in the medial vestibular nucleus. Arch. Otolaryngol. 102 (1976) 71-76
119. Schaefer K.P., and Meyer D.L. Compensation of vestibular lesions. In: Kornhuber H.H. (Ed). Vestibular system: Part 1: Basic mechanisms (Handbook of Sensory Physiology Vol. IV/1) (1974), Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 463-490
120. Sebastian C., and Horn E. The minimum duration of microgravity experience during space flight which affects the development of the roll induced vestibuloocular reflex in an amphibian. Neurosci. Lett. 253 (1998) 171-174
121. Sebastian C., and Horn E. Light-dependent supression of the vestibuloocular reflex during development. NeuroReport 10 (1999) 171-176
122. Sebastian C., and Horn E. Features of vestibuloocular reflex modulations induced by altered gravitational forces in tadpoles (Xenopus laevis). Adv. Space Res. 28 (2001) 579-588
123. Sebastian C., Eßeling K., and Horn E. Altered gravitational experience during early periods of life affects the static vestibulo-ocular reflex of tadpoles of the Southern Clawed Toad, Xenopus laevis Daudin. Exp. Brain Res. 112 (1996) 213-222
124. Sebastian C., Eßeling K., and Horn E. Altered gravitational forces affect the development of the static vestibuloocular reflex in fish (Oreochromis mossambicus). J. Neurobiol. 46 (2001) 59-72
125. Shi D.-L., and Boucout J.C. The chronological development of the urodele amphibian Pleurodeles waltl (Michah). Int. J. Dev. Biol. 39 (1995) 427-441
126. Slenzka K., Anken R., Bäuerle A., Körtje K.H., Paulus U., and Rahmann H. Morphological, electronmicroscopical and biochemical aspects of hyper-gravity conditions during early ontogenetic development of cichlid fish. ESA SP-307, (1990) 321-328
127. Slenzka K., Appel R., and Rahmann H. Brain creatine kinase activity during ontogeny of the cichlid fish Oreochromis mossambicus and the clawed toad Xenopus laevis, influence of gravity?. Neurochem. Int. 22 (1993) 405-411
128. Smith P.F., and Curthoys I.S. Mechanisms of recovery following unilateral labyrinthectomy: a review. Brain Res. Rev. 14 (1989) 155-180
129. Snetkova E., Chelnaya N., Serova L., Saveliev S., Cherdanzova E., Pronych S., and Wassersug R.J. The effects of space flight on Xenopus laevis larval development. J. Exp. Zool. 273 (1995) 21-32
130. Souza K.A., Black S.D., and Wassersug R.J. Amphibian development in the virtual absence of gravity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92 (1995) 1975-1978
131. Spangenberg D.B., Coccaro E., Schwarte R., and Lowe B. Touch-plate and statolith formation in graviceptors of ephyrae which developed while weightless in space. Scanning Microscopy 10 (1996) 875-888
132. Takabayashi A., Ohara K., Ohmura T., Watanabe S., Mori S., Tanaka M., and Sakuragi S. Mechanisms of vestibular adaptation of fish under microgravity. Uchu Seibutsu Kagaku 11 4 (1997) 351-354
133. Ubbels G.A. Fertilization and development of Xenopus eggs on sounding rockets and in a clinostat. ESA SP-1206 (1997) 25-36
134. Ubbels G.A., Reijnen M., Meijerink J., and Narraway J. The role of gravity in the establishment of the dorso-ventral axis in the amphibian embryo. ESA SP-1162, (1995) 175-185
135. van der Loos H., and Woolsey T.A. Somatosensory cortex: structural alterations following early injury to sense organs. Science 179 (1973) 395-398
136. Vinnikov Y.A.A., Gazenko O.G., Lychakov D.V., and Palmbach L.R. Formation of the vestibular apparatus in weightlessness. In: Romand R. (Ed). Development of auditory and vestibular systems (1983), Academic Press, New York 537-560
137. von Baumgarten R.J., Simmonds R.C., Boyd J.F., and Garriott O.K. Effects of prolonged weightlessness on the swimming pattern of fish aboard Skylab 3. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 46 (1975) 902-906
138. von Holst E. Die Arbeitsweise des Statolithenapparates bei Fischen. Z. vergl. Physiol. 32 (1950) 60-120
139. Waespe W., Schwarz U., and Wolfensberger M. Firing characteristics of vestibular nuclei neurons in the alert monkey after bilateral vestibular neurectomy. Exp. Brain Res. 89 (1992) 311-322
140. Wagner T.U., Renn J., Riemensperger T., Volff J.N., Koster R.W., Goerlich R., Schartel M., and Winkler C. The teleost fish medaka (Oryzias latipes) as a genetic model to study gravity dependent bone homeostasis in vivo. Adv. Space Res. 32 8 (2003) 1459-1465
141. Walton K. Postnatal development under conditions of simulated weightlessness and space flight. Brain Res. Rev. 28 (1998) 25-34
142. Wassersug R.J., Izumi-Kurotani A., Yamashita M., and Naitoh T. Motion sickness in amphibians. Behav. Neur. Biol. 60 (1993) 42-51
143. Wiederhold M.L., Yamashita M., Larsen K.A., Batten J.S., Koike H., and Asashima M. Development of the otolith organs and semicircular canals in the Japanese red-bellied newt, Cynops pyrrhogaster. Hearing Res. 84 (1995) 41-51
144. Wiederhold M.L., Gao W.Y., Harrison J.L., and Hejl R. Development of gravity-sensing organs in altered gravity. Grav. Space Biol. Bull. 10 (1997) 91-96
145. Wiederhold M.L., Gao W., Harrison J.L., and Parker K.A. Early development of gravity-sensing organs in microgravity. In: Buckey J.C., and Homick J.L. (Eds). The Neurolab spacelab mission: Neuroscience research in space (2003), NASA SP-535, Houston Texas 123-132
146. Wiesel T. Postnatal development of the visual cortex and influence of environment. Nature 299 (1982) 583-591
147. Yamashita M., Izumi-Kurotani A., Imamizo M., Koike H., Okuno M., Pfeiffer C.J., Komazaki S., Sasaki F., Ohira Y., Kashima I., Kikuyama S., Ohnishi T., Mogami Y., and Asashima M. Japanese red-bellied newts in Space-AstroNewt experiment on Space Shuttle IML-2 and Space Flyer Unit. Biol. Sci. Space 15 (2001) 96-103
148. Yokota H., Neff A.W., and Malacinski G.M. Early development of Xenopus embryos is affected by simulated gravity. Adv. Space Res. 14 (1994) 249-255