The movement that dare not speak its name: The return of left nationalism/internationalism

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Volumn 26, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 1-32

  Laxer, Gordon ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

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EID: 23044525843     PISSN: 03043754     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030437540102600101     Document Type: Article

References (139)

1. France, "Report on the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI): Interim Report - September 1998," Ministry of Economy, Finance, and Industry. Report authored by Catherine Lalumiere (MEP), Jean-Pierre Landau, and Emmanuel Glimet. This version was posted in English on the Council of Canadians website.
2. Paul Hawken, "The WTO: Inside, Outside, All Around the World." Published on the internet by Hawken, Natural Capital Institute, Jan. 16, 2000. See p. 10.
3. Chantal Mouffe, "Democratic Politics Today," in Dimensions of Radical Democracy (London: Verso, 1992). pp. 11-12.
4. For an entry into this debate, see the July 1999 issue of the Monist 82, no. 3.
5. David Lloyd, "Nationalisms against the State: Towards a Critique of the Anti-Nationalist Prejudice," in Timothy P. Foley, et al., eds., Gender and Colonialism (Galway: Galway University Press, 1995), pp. 256-281.
6. I am grateful to Josèe Johnston for most incisive and challenging comments on several drafts of this article. Amory Starr's tough review was also very helpful.
7. John Williamson, "In Search of a Manual for Technopols," in Williamson, ed., The Political Economy of Policy Reform (Washington: Institute for Economic Research, 1993), p. 18.
8. Bob Jessop, "Post-Fordism and the State," in Ash Amin ed., Post-Fordism: A Reader (London: Blackwell, 1994);
9. J. Brodie, "Glocal Citizenship: Lost in Space?" in E. Isen, ed., Cities in a Global Age (London: Routledge, 2000).
10. Noam Chomsky, "Who's World Order? Conflicting Visions," lecture, University of Calgary, Sept. 22, 1998.
11. Warren Magnusson, The Search for Political Space (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996), p. 10.
12. Susan Meeker-Lowry, "Community Money: The Potential of Local Currency," in J. Mander and E. Goldsmith, eds., The Case Against the Global Economy (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1996), pp. 446-459.
13. Todd Gitlin, The Twilight of Common Dreams (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), p. 91.
14. Ephraim Nimni, Marxism and Nationalism (London: Pinto Press, 1991).
15. Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalisms since 1780 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 3, 182.
16. Jan Edling's "The Future of the European Welfare State," a paper presented May 10, 1993, at Swedish trade union confederation meeting, is typical of this perspective.
17. David Held, Democracy and the Global Order (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), pp. ix, x, 233.
18. Daniele Archibugi's cosmopolitan democracy envisages the continuation of powerful states: "From the UN to Cosmopolitan Democracy," in Archibugi and Held, eds., Cosmopolitan Democracy (Cambridge: Polity, 1995), p. 157.
19. In Pheng Cheah and Bruce Roberts, eds. Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling beyond the Nation (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998).
20. Robbins depicts Kant's cosmopolitanism as opposed to nationalism, whereas Cheah argues it was opposed to absolute states. Robbins, "Actually Existing Cosmopolitanism," Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling beyond the Nation ibid., p. 2;
21. Cheah, "The Cosmopolitical-Today," Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling beyond the Nation ibid., p. 22.
22. Jocelyne Couture, "Cosmopolitanism and Liberal Nationalism," Monist 82, no. 3: 491-515.
23. See also Kai Nielsen, "Cosmopolitan Nationalism," Monist ibid.: 446-468.
24. Herman Daly, "Globalization versus Internationalization: Some Implications," draft of talk given in Buenos Aires, Nov. 1998, p. 7.
25. Pheng Cheah, "Rethinking Cosmopolitical Freedom in Transnationalism," in Cosmopolitics, note 17, 291.
26. Some writers include "the national" as a prototype of the particular. L. Greenfield, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992).
27. Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990), p. 64.
28. Roland Robertson, "Glocalization: Time-Space and Homogeneity-Heterogeneity," in Featherstone, Lash, and Robertson, eds., Global Modernities (London: Sage, 1995). p. 40.
29. Held, note 16, p. 279, advocates the permanent shift of nation-states' coercive capacity to regional and global institutions.
30. C. Calhoun, "Nationalism and Civil Society: Democracy, Diversity, and Self-determination," International Sociology, 8, no. 4, 407.
31. Danaher, in Kevin Danaher, ed., Fifty Years Is Enough: The Case against the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
32. Hobsbawm, as quoted in Tom Nairn, "Breakwaters of 2000: From Ethnic to Civic Nationalism," in New Left Review 214, p. 97.
33. See the Lilliput strategy of Jeremy Brecher and Tim Costello, in Global Village or Global Pillage? Economic Reconstruction from the Bottom-up (Boston: South End Press, 1994), chap. 6.
34. Based on discussion with Josée Johnston.
35. This is not to imply that separatist movements are never legitimate.
36. Daniel Bell, "The World and the United States in 2013," Daedalus 116, no. 3 (1987): 14.
37. Joseph Stiglitz, "The World Bank at the Millennium," Economic Journal 109 (Nov. 1999): 591.
38. Martin Khor, "Tide Turning against Free-Market Orthodoxy," Institute for Global Communications, Sept. 16, 1998.
39. Chomsky, note 9. See also Chomsky, Profit over People (New York: Seven Stories Press, 1999), pp. 21-23.
40. The New Democratic Party is a social-democratic party with strength outside Quebec. Since its inception in 1961, it has played a prominent role in Canada's House of Commons, especially in pressing for a universal public-health-care system, and its provincial wings have formed governments in four provinces and one territory.
41. J. M. Stopford, Susan Strange, and John S. Henley, Rival States, Rival Firms (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 121.
42. H. Sklar, Trilateralism: The Trilateral Commission and Elite Planning for World Management (Montreal: Black Rose, 1980), p. 2.
43. M. Crozier, et al., The Crisis of Democracy (New York: New York University Press, 1975), p. 162.
44. Joyce Nelson, "The Trilateral Connection," Canadian Forum (Dec. 1995): 5-9.
45. Cited in Kari Levitt, Silent Surrender: The Multinational Corporation in Canada (Toronto: Macmillan, 1970), p. 98.
46. Lawrence Summers, "America's Role in Global Economic Integration," Brookings Conference, "Integrating National Economies: The Next Step," Jan. 9, 1996, p. 3.
47. Aijaz Ahmed, "Nationalism: Between History and Ideology," lecture, University of Alberta, Mar. 13, 1998.
48. Hobsbawm, note 14, p. 26.
49. K. Ohmae, The Borderless World (New York: Harper Business, 1990);
50. S. Ostry, Governments and Corporations in a Shrinking World (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1990).
51. P. Adams, Odious Debts (Toronto: Earthscan, 1991);
52. B. Barber, Jihad vs. McWorld (New York: Times Books, 1995), p. 230.
53. In two graduate seminars, students asked to identify the author of this Marx/Engels quote guessed Frances Fukuyama and Robert Reich.
54. Marx and Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1986 [1848]), pp. 37-38.
55. Hobsbawm, note 14, p. 91. Reliable statistics on historical migration are difficult to obtain, and this claim is disputable: a number equivalent to 41 percent of the 1900 population of the British Isles (including Ireland) emigrated between 1846 and 1924; a comparative Figure for Norway is 3 percent: P. Stalker, The Work of Strangers (Geneva: International Labour Office, 1994), p. 16.
56. Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere," in C. Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992), pp. 109-142.
57. Gordon Laxer, "Social Solidarity, Democracy, and Global Capitalism," in Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 32, no. 3 (1995): 287-313.
58. R. Cox, Production, Power, and World Order (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987);
59. Ohmae, note 44; R. T. Naylor, Hot Money and the Politics of Debt (Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1994).
60. Stephen Gill, "Globalisation, Market Civilisation, and Disciplinary Neoliberalism," Journal of International Studies 24, no. 3 (1995): 412.
61. Nationalisms still have liberating potential in the Third World, but they must compete with powerful official state nationalisms such as those in China, India, and Indonesia.
62. Gordon Laxer, "Opposition to Continental Integration: Sweden and Canada," Review of Constitutional Studies 2, no. 2 (1995): 342-395.
63. Josée Johnston, "Defending and Reconstructing Emancipation: Using the Zapatista Uprising as a Guiding Heuristic," master's thesis, University of Alberta, 1997, pp. 204-205.
64. Gitlin, note 12; Hobsbawm, note 14, argues that the opposite to nationalism was the original revolutionary idea of "patriotism."
65. Hobsbawm, note 14, p. 146.
66. Ibid., pp. 146-148.
67. Ernest Renan, "What Is a Nation?" in H. Bhabha, ed., Nation and Narration (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 19.
68. In Deconstructing the Nation (London: Routledge, 1992) (p. 20), M. Silverman notes that while Renan clearly distinguishes between race and nation, his imagery is close to romanticism and race. Edward Said argues that Renan's views on "degenerate" races as opposed to the "superior" white race cannot be separated from his ideas on nationalism.
69. "Nationalism, Human Rights, and Interpretation," Raritan 12, no. 3 (1993): 34.
70. F. Meinecke, Cosmopolitanism and the National State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970 [1907]), p. 9.
71. Aboriginal nationalisms may be exceptions. Many did not have to go through the Enlightenment to conceive of government as inhering in the people. Zapoteca nationalism in Mexico draws upon indigenous Zapotec culture but is associated with peasant, working-class, feminist, and student resistance: H. Campbell et al., eds., Zapotec Struggles: Histories, Politics, and Representations from Juchitan, Oaxaca (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993).
72. Anthony Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986).
73. Anthony Smith, Theories of Nationalism (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), pp. 188-189.
74. Roger D. Thomas, "French Revolutionary Socialists and the Revolutionary Tradition, 1789-1871," in Cahm and Fisera, eds., Socialism and Nationalism in Contemporary Europe, vol. 2 (Nottingham: Spokesman, 1979), p. 13.
75. Hobsbawm cites the first three of these terms as having "the opposite meaning to 'my country right or wrong'" (see Hobsbawm, note 14, pp. 145, 89, 87).
76. Lord Acton, "Nationality," in The History of Freedom and Other Essays (London: Macmillan, 1907 [1862]), p. 286.
77. R. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 210, n. 48.
78. Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany Ibid., p. 145.
79. Miroslav Hroch, "From National Movement to the Fully-formed Nation," New Left Review 198 (Mar.-Apr. 1993): 6.
80. The ethnic conception triumphed over Bismarck's statist view that minority Poles belonged "to no other state and to no other people than the Prussian, to which I myself belong": Brubaker, note 67, p. 127.
81. Hobsbawm (note 14, p. 164) does not trace the origin of nations to preexisting ethnicities but argues that recent, racist nationalist movements insist on "ethnicity" and linguistic differences. Anthony Smith endorses the recent convergence of literatures on nationalism and ethnicity: Ethnicity and Nationalism (Leiden: Brill, 1992).
82. J. Carens, "Membership and Morality: Admission to Citizenship in Liberal Democratic States," in R. Brubaker, ed., Immigration and the Politics of Citizenship in Europe and North America (Lanham: University Press of America, 1989), p. 35.
83. R. Brubaker, in introduction to Brubaker, note 72.
84. "Deep diversity" is Charles Taylor's phrase for different ways sociological nations can belong to the same state: "Shared and Divergent Values," in Watts and Brown, eds., Options for a New Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), p. 75.
85. Said, note 59: 33.
86. Allan Knight, "Peasants into Patriots: Thoughts on the Making of the Mexican Nation," Mexican Studies 10, no. 1 (1994): 142.
87. Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976), pp. 72, 73, and chaps. 6, 7, 18.
88. Kenneth Karst, Belonging to America (New Haven: Yale University Press), pp. 31, 83.
89. Etienne Balibar, "The Nation Form," Review 13, no. 3 (1990): 358-359.
90. Cited by Silverman, note 59, p. 22.
91. Karst, note 78, p. 179.
92. J. Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York: Atheneum, 1963), p. 4.
93. Silverman, note 59, chaps. 3 and 4; Brubaker, note 67, chap. 7.
94. Y. Abu-Laban, "The Nation-state in an Era of Regionalism and Globalization: A Comparative Study of the Politics of Migration in the United States and France," doctoral thesis, Carleton University, 1995, pp. 88-112, 172-188.
95. Linda S. Bosniak, "Opposing Prop. 187: Undocumented Immigrants and the National Imagination," Connecticut Law Review 28, no. 3 (1996): 555-619.
96. Germany, German Imperial and State Nationality Law (London: Harrison & Sons, 1914).
97. Thomas Faist, "How to Define a Foreigner? The Symbolic Politics of Immigration in German Partition Discourse, 1978-1992," West European Politics special issue (1994).
98. Kay Hailbronner, "Citizenship and Nationhood in Germany," in Brubaker, note 72, pp. 67-68.
99. R. Brubaker, note 67, p. 224; Yasemin Soysal, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), p. 2.
100. Gordon Laxer, "Surviving the Americanizing New Right," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 37, no. 1 (2000): 55-75.
101. W. Connor, Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 81.
102. J. Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in Eugene Kamenka, ed., Nationalism: The Nature of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), p. 30.
103. Robert Ergang, Herder and the Foundations of German Nationalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1931), p. 82.
104. F. M. Barnard, Herder's Social and Political Thought (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), p. 10.
105. Hroch, note 69, pp. 5, 12.
106. Uprendra Baxi, "The Struggle for Redefinition of Secularism in India: Some Preliminary Reflections," Social Action 44 (Jan.-Mar. 1994): 18.
107. Laxer, note 89, 56-75.
108. Howard Palmer, Patterns of Prejudice (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1982), p. 10.
109. The flag was British; the school was public, rather than Roman Catholic; and the language was English.
110. Speech by John L. O'Sullivan, in A. Schlesinger Jr., The Age of Jackson (Boston: Little, Brown, 1945), p. 427. Shadia Drury, University of Calgary, argues that the Reform Party is a US neoconservative import and holds an ideal of ethnic, racial, religious cultural homogeneity. Interview, March 25, 1998.
111. Interview with Jan Brown, former Reform Party Member of Parliament in Calgary, March 25, 1998; Tim Nieguth, "The Trouble with NEW CANADA: Neo-conservatism, the Reform Party, and the Internal Logic of Civic Nationalism," M.A. research essay, Carleton University, 1996. The Reform Party changed its name to the Alliance Party (Reform Conservative Alliance Party).
112. Goldwin Smith, Canada and the Canadian Question (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1971).
113. Link Byfield, "If Unity Becomes the Big Theme, Reform Can Make Healthy Gains," British Columbia Report, vol. 8, Oct. 7, 1996, p. 8.
114. Jean-Yves Camus, "Europe's New Fascist Order," Le Monde, Mar. 2000, pp. 4-5.
115. Louis Balthazar, "The Faces of Quebec Nationalism," in Alain Gagnon, ed., Québec: State and Society, 2d ed. (Toronto: Nelson, 1993), p. 15.
116. Daniel Latouche, "Québec, See under Canada: Québec Nationalism in the New Global Age," in Gagnon, note 103, p. 53.
117. In 1964, George Grant, an influential conservative philosopher, published Lament for a Nation: The Defeat of Canadian Nationalism, a landmark book that mourned the passing of Canada's traditionally conservative features, which distinguished the country from the individualism of the liberal-capitalist United States.
118. Gitlin, note 12, p. 71.
119. R. Breton, "From Ethnic to Civic Nationalism: English Canada and Quebec," Ethnic and Racial Studies 11, no. 1 (Jan.): 85-102.
120. Gordon Laxer, Countries for Sale: Foreign Ownership in a Global Economy (Toronto: CBC Ideas Transcripts, 1991), p. 8.
121. George Grant, Lament for a Nation (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1965), p. 43.
122. The issue of foreign ownership has recently taken on nativist overtones, especially in Vancouver, with the rise of Asian investment and business-class immigrants. Peter S. Li, "Unneighbourly Houses or Unwelcome Chinese," International Journal of Comparative Race and Ethnic Studies 1, no. 1 (1994): 14-33.
123. France, report, note 1; Elizabeth Smythe and Jay Smith, "Globalization, Citizenship, and Technology: The MAI Meets the Internet," paper presented to the Canadian Political Science Association Meeting, June 6, 1999, Sherbrooke, Québec.
124. James Goodman, "Stopping the Juggernaut: The Anti-MAI Campaign," in Goodman and Patricia Ranald, eds., Stopping the Juggernaut: Public Interest versus the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (Annandale, NSW: Pluto Press, 2000).
125. Among those invited were the World Wildlife Federation, Friends of the Earth, and Consumers International: interview with Maude Barlow, Ottawa, Aug. 4, 1999.
126. Tony Clarke now heads the Polaris Institute, based in Ottawa. Clarke interview, Ottawa, Aug. 4, 1999.
127. Clarke interview, note 113.
128. Noam Chomsky, "Power in the Global Arena," New Left Review (1998): 28.
129. Smythe and Smith, note 10.
130. Maude Barlow, The Fight of My Life: Confessions of an Unrepentant Canadian (Toronto: HarperCollins, 1998), p. 220.
131. Clarke interview, note 113.
132. Jeffrey Ayres, Defying Conventional Wisdom: Political Movements and Popular Contention against North American Free Trade (Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1998).
133. Barlow, note 117, p. 219.
134. Collectif Francais contre Les Clones De L'Ami, "Accord Des Citoyens et Des Peuples Sur Les Investissements et les Richesses," 6th version, 1999, p. 23 (from Susan George home page).
135. Interview with Barlow, Aug. 4, 1999.
136. Barber, note 45, p. 278.
137. Laxer, note 108, p. 19. White was later head of the Trades Union Advisory Committee at the time of the OECD talks on the MAI.
138. Stalker, note 48, 240-41. In 1990, foreign workers were 70 percent of the labor force in Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and Bahrain. Many left the region before the Gulf War.
139. M. Kundera, The Book of Laughter and Forgetting, trans. M. H. Heim (Markham, Ont.: Penguin, 1986), p. 3.