The nature, history, and distribution of lithic mulch agriculture: An ancient technique of dryland agriculture

Agricultural History Review

Volumn 44, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 206-222

  Lightfoot, Dale R ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 22744438004     PISSN: 00021490     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (300)

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80. Kedar, 'Ancient agriculture at Shivta', p 186.
81. Hillel, Negev: Land, Water, and Life, p 136.
82. Wooley et al, The Wilderness of Zin.
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84. Evenari et al, The Negev, Ibid, pp 260-61.
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86. J Chilwell, 'Stone mulches increase productivity of soil', Farmer's Weekly of South Africa, 84, 1952, pp 41-2.
87. White, Roman Farming,
88. Cato et al, Roman Farm Management;
89. Rodale, Stone Mulching in the Garden.
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92. G V Jacks, W D Brind, and R Smith, Mulching, Farnham Royal, 1955, p 12.
93. White, Roman Farming, pp 229-30;
94. Cato et al, Roman Farm Management;
95. Rodale, Stone Mulching in the Garden, p 58.
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97. R A Benfer, G H Weir, and B O Enriquez, 'Early water management technology on the Peruvian coast', in D L Browman, ed, Arid Land Use Strategies and Risk Management in the Andes, Westview Press, 1987, pp 195-206.
98. Engel, 'New facts about pre-Columbian life', p 277.
99. Engel New facts about pre-Columbian life Ibid, pp 275-77.
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101. Benfer et al, Early water management Ibid, p 199.
102. Hillel, Negev: Land, Water, and Life, p 136;
103. National Academy of Sciences, More Water for Arid Lands: Promising Technologies and Research Opportunities, National Academy of Sciences, 1974, p 68.
104. C Field, 'A reconnaissance of southern Andean agricultural terracing', unpublished Ph D thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1966, p 512.
105. Engel, 'New facts about pre-Columbian life', pp 275-77.
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108. R A Donkin, Agricultural Terracing in the Aboriginal New World, Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology No 56, University of Arizona Press, 1979;
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112. Field, Reconnaissance of southern Andean agricultural terracing Ibid, pp 393-99.
113. Field, Reconnaissance of southern Andean agricultural terracing Ibid, pp 372-74, 512.
114. Field, Reconnaissance of southern Andean agricultural terracing Ibid, p 362.
115. Field, Reconnaissance of southern Andean agricultural terracing Ibid, pp 263-64.
116. Field, Reconnaissance of southern Andean agricultural terracing Ibid, pp 263-64, 512.
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148. Berlin et al, A prehistoric Sinagua agricultural site Ibid, pp 1-2, 5.
149. Berlin et al, A prehistoric Sinagua agricultural site Ibid, pp 2, 5.
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151. Berlin et al, 'A prehistoric Sinagua agricultural site', p 2.
152. Berlin et al, A prehistoric Sinagua agricultural site Ibid, p 12.
153. Colton, 'Sunset Crater: the effect of a volcanic eruption', and Black Sand;
154. H S Colton, 'The prehistoric population of the Flagstaff area', Plateau, 22, 1949, pp21-25;
155. H S Colton idem 'Experiments in raising corn in the Sunset Crater ashfall area east of Flagstaff, Arizona', Plateau, 37, 1965, pp 77-79;
156. Pilles, Volcanic Activity and Human Ecology;
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159. S H Maule, 'Corn growing at Wupatki', Plateau, 36, 1963, pp 29-32.
160. D R Lightfoot, 'The landscape context of Anasazi pebble-mulched fields in the Galisteo Basin, northern New Mexico', Geoarchaeology, 8, 1993, pp 349-70;
161. D R Lightfoot idem, 'The cultural ecology of Puebloan pebble mulch', Human Ecology, 21, 1993, pp 115-43;
162. Lightfoot and Eddy, 'The agricultural utility of lithic-mulch gardens', pp 425-37;
163. T D Maxwell and K F Anschuetz, 'The southwestern ethnographic record and prehistoric agricultural diversity', in T W Killion, ed, Gardens of Prehistory: The Archaeology of Settlement Agriculture in Greater Mesoamerica, University of Alabama Press, 1992, pp 35-68;
164. L S Cordell, Prehistory of the Southwest, 1984;
165. F C Hibben, Excavation of the Riana Ruin and Chama Valley Survey, University of New Mexico Anthropological Series Bulletin No 300, University of New Mexico Press, 1937;
166. K F Anschuetz, T D Maxwell, and J A Ware, Testing Report and Research Design for the Mendenales North Project, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, Laboratory of Anthropology Note No 347, Museum of New Mexico, 1985.
167. Lightfoot, 'The cultural ecology of Puebloan pebble mulch', pp 130-31;
168. R L Tjaden, 'Bordered garden plots and field houses near Sapawe, north central New Mexico: a dry farming strategy', unpublished M A Thesis, Arizona State University, Tempe, 1979, p 16;
169. R W Lang, A Prehistoric Pueblo Garden Plot on the Rio Ojo Caliente, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico: Ojo Caliente Site 7, Features 1-2, Contract Archaeology Division Report No 065, School of American Research, 1981, p 40;
170. Maxwell and Anschuetz, 'Southwestern ethnographic record', p 57.
171. Maxwell and Anschuetz, 'Southwestern ethnographic record';
172. Cordell, Prehistory of the Southwest, pp 205-6;
173. Anschuetz et al. Testing Report and Research Design;
174. J A Ware and M Mensel, The Ojo Caliente Project: Archaeological Test Excavations and a Data Recovery Plan for Cultural Resources Along U.S. 285, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, Archaeology Notes No 99, Museum of New Mexico, 1992.
175. Lightfoot, 'The cultural ecology of Puebloan pebble mulch', pp 122-24,
176. and, 'The landscape context of Anasazi pebble-mulched Fields', pp 351-53.
177. Lightfoot and Eddy 'The agricultural utility of lithic-mulch gardens', p 426;
178. Maxwell and Anschuetz, 'Southwestern ethnographic record';
179. D E Buge, 'Prehistoric subsistence strategies in the Ojo Caliente valley, New Mexico', in Fish and Fish, Prehistoric Agricultural Strategies, pp 27-34.
180. Lightfoot, 'The cultural ecology of Puebloan pebble mulch', p 122;
181. Maxwell and Anschuetz, 'Southwestern ethnographic record', p 60;
182. R W Lang, An Archaeological Survey Near the Confluence of the Chama and Ojo Caliente Rivers, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, Contract Archaeology Division Report No 065, School of American Research, 1979, p 19.
183. Lang, An Archaeological Survey Near the Confluence of the Chama and Ojo Caliente Rivers, p 19;
184. Buge, 'Prehistoric subsistence strategies', p 32.
185. Lightfoot, 'The cultural ecology of Puebloan pebble mulch', p 122;
186. Maxwell and Anschuetz, 'Southwestern ethnographic record', p 60;
187. R A Luebben, 'Leaf Water site', in F Wendorf, ed, Salvage Archaeology in the Chama Valley, New Mexico, Monographs of the School of American Research No 17, School of American Research, 1953, p 16.
188. Lightfoot, 'The landscape context of Anasazi pebble-mulched fields', pp 360-66.
189. Lightfoot, 'The cultural ecology of Puebloan pebble mulch', pp 120-21;
190. Maxwell and Anschuetz, 'Southwestern ethnographic record'.
191. D R Lightfoot, 'The prehistoric pebble-mulched fields of the Galisteo Anasazi: agricultural innovation and adaptation to environment', unpublished PhD thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, 1990, pp 150-52;
192. Tjaden, 'Bordered garden plots and field houses', p 5;
193. Buge, 'Prehistoric subsistence strategies', p 31.
194. Lightfoot, 'The prehistoric pebble-mulched fields', pp 173-74;
195. Cordell, Prehistory of the Southwest, p 205;
196. R W Lang, Archaeological Investigations at a Pueblo Agricultural Site, and Archaic and Puebloan Encampments on the Rio Ojo Caliente, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, Contract Archaeology Division Report No 007, School of American Research, 1980, pp 5, 17.
197. E L Hewett, Antiquities of the Jemez Plateau, New Mexico, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No 32, Smithsonian Institution, 1906, pp 32, 36;
198. R Greenlee, Archaeological Sites in the Chama Valley, and Report on Excavations at Tsama, jp2p-jpjj, Santa Fe Laboratory of Anthropology, nd, pp 10, 24;
199. A B Reagan, 'The story of Jemez and Sia', El Palacio, 4, 1917, p 30.
200. K Fiero, Prehistoric Garden Plots along the Lower Rio Chama Valley: Archaeological Investigations at Sites LA 11830, LA 11831, and LA 11832, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, Laboratory of Anthropology Note IIIe, Museum of New Mexico, 1978;
201. K H Clary, Pollen Evidence for the Agricultural Utilization of Late Classic Period (AD 1350-1500) Puebloan Gravel Mulch Terrace Gardens, the Rio Chama, in the Vicinity of Medanales, New Mexico, Castetter Laboratory for Ethnobotanical Studies Technical Series Report No 198, University of New Mexico Press, 1987.
202. Clary, Pollen Evidence, p 19.
203. Lightfoot, The cultural ecology of Puebloan pebble mulch', p 127.
204. Lightfoot, The cultural ecology of Puebloan pebble mulch Ibid, p 139;
205. Lang, Archaeological Investigations at a Pueblo Agricultural Site, p 12.
206. E Best, Maori Agriculture, A R Shearer, 1976;
207. T Rigg and J A Bruce, 'The Maori gravel soil of Waimea West, Nelson, New Zealand', J Polynesian Society, 32, 1923, pp 85-93;
208. H Conway, 'Maori horticulture', in W A Pullar, ed, Soils and Agriculture of the Gisborne Plains, New Zealand Soil Bureau Bulletin No 20, R E Owen, 1962, pp 62-65.
209. Best, Maori Agriculture, pp 24-25, 240-41;
210. Rigg and Bruce, 'Maori gravel soil', pp 85-93;
211. J Rutland, 'Traces of ancient human occupation in the Pelorus district, Middle Island, New Zealand', J Polynesian Society, 3, 1894, pp 220-32.
212. Best, Maori Agriculture, pp 23-28, 121-25, 240-41;
213. Rigg and Bruce, 'Maori gravel soil', pp 85, 87, 90-92;
214. Rutland, 'Traces of ancient human occupation;, p 221.
215. Rutland, 'Traces of ancient human occupation', p 231.
216. Best, Maori Agriculture, pp 24-25.
217. Rigg and Bruce, 'Maori gravel soil', p 92.
218. Best, Maori Agriculture, pp 121-24;
219. Rigg and Bruce, 'Maori gravel soil', pp 85-93;
220. Rutland, 'Traces of ancient human occupation', pp 220-32.
221. Rutland, 'Traces of ancient human occupation', pp 220-32.
222. Best, Maori Agriculture, p 23.
223. Rutland, 'Traces of ancient human occupation', pp 221, 232.
224. Best, Maori Agriculture, pp 122-23.
225. Rigg and Bruce, 'Maori gravel soil', pp 85-93.
226. Rutland, 'Traces of ancient human occupation', pp 222, 232.
227. Best, Maori Agriculture, p 23.
228. Best, Maori Agriculture, Ibid, pp 26, 124-25, 223;
229. Conway, Soils and Agriculture of the Gisborne Plains, pp 62-65.
230. Best, Maori Agriculture, p 26.
231. Best, Maori Agriculture Ibid, pp 122-25.
232. Best, Maori Agriculture Ibid, pp 26, 124-25, 223.
233. Aschmann, 'Historical development of agriculture', p 98;
234. S Dinkins, 'Lanzarote: the strangest Canary', National Geographic, 135, 1969, pp 117-39.
235. Aschmann, 'Historical development of agriculture', p 98;
236. Dinkins, 'Lanzarote', pp 117, 122.
237. J J Parsons, 'The Canary Islands search for stability', Focus, 35, 1985, p 26.
238. Dinkins, 'Lanzarote', p 127.
239. Aschmann, 'Historical development of agriculture', p 98.
240. Aschmann, Historical development of agriculture Ibid, p 98;
241. Dinkins, 'Lanzarote', pp 126-28.
242. Dinkins, 'Lanzarote', pp 120-28;
243. Parsons, 'The Canary Islands', pp 26, 28;
244. W H Isom and G F Worker, 'Crop management in semi-arid environments', in A E Hall, G H Cannell, and H W Lawton, eds, Agriculture in Semi-Arid Environments, Springer-Verlag, 1979, p 205.
245. Aschmann, 'Historical development of agriculture', p 98.
246. Dinkins, 'Lanzarote', p 127.
247. Aschmann, 'Historical development of agriculture', p 98.
248. Dinkins, 'Lanzarote', p 127.
249. Dinkins, Lanzarote Ibid, pp 127-28.
250. T C Tsiang, 'China', in Soil Conservation: An International Study, FAO Agricultural Studies No 4, UNFAO, 1948, pp 81-85;
251. W C Lowdermilk, 'China fights erosion with U.S. aid', National Geographic, 87, 1945, pp 641-80;
252. J L Buck, Land Utilization in China, University of Chicago Press, 1937, pp 7, 52, 115.
253. Tsiang, 'China', p 84;
254. Lowdermilk, 'China fights erosion', p 662;
255. Buck, Land Utilization in China, p 52.
256. Tsiang, 'China', p 84.
257. Lowdermilk, 'China fights erosion', p 662.
258. Tsiang, 'China', p 84.
259. The extensive volume on Chinese agriculture assembled by F Bray (vol 6 of J Needham, ed, Science and Civilisation in China, 1984,) discusses contemporary agriculture and summarizes many private and state commissioned monographs and treatises on Chinese agriculture c AD 535, 1273, 1313, 1600, and 1742, yet never mentions the practice of pebble mulching and so fails to shed light on its origins.
260. J Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Ibid, p 84.
261. Rodale, Stone Mulching in the Garden, pp 54, 62.
262. E H Faulkner, 'Miscellaneous mulches: gravel', in Handbook on Mulches, special printing of Plants and Gardens, 13, 1970, p 48;
263. A Sutcliffe, 'The Brooklyn Botanic Garden', also in Handbook on Mulches, pp 34-35.
264. Rodale, Stone Mulching in the Garden, p 97.
265. Rodale, Stone Mulching in the Garden, Ibid, pp 39-55, 106-37;
266. J I Rodale, 'Rock mulches', Organic Gardening, 7, 1945, pp 4-7;
267. J I Rodale idem, 'Decorative rock mulches', Organic Gardening, 7, 1945, pp 7-10.
268. Rodale, Stone Mulching in the Garden, pp 54-55, 124-26.
269. Chilwell, 'Stone mulches increase productivity of soil';
270. Jacks et al, Mulching.
271. Joseph A. Cocannouer, Trampling Out the Vintage, University of Oklahoma Press, 1945, p 118;
272. Rodale, Stone Mulching in the Garden, p 64;
273. Rodale, 'Rock Mulches', pp 4-5.
274. Rodale, Stone Mulching in the Garden, p 53.
275. Jacks et al, Mulching, p 12.
276. Spencer and Hale, 'The origin, nature, and distribution of agricultural terracing', pp 21-22.
277. Fairbourn, 'Effect of gravel mulch on crop yields'.
278. Adams, 'Effect of mulches', and 'Influence of mulches'.
279. A T Bleak and W Keller, 'Crested wheatgrass yields as influenced by water conservation practices', Agronomy J, 66, 1974, pp 326-28.
280. Choriki et al, 'Rock and gravel mulch'.
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