Mapping, regularizing and modernizing Ottoman Istanbul: Aspects of the genesis of the 1839 development policy

Urban History

Volumn 31, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 420-436

  Gül, Murat ^a   Lamb, Richard ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; MAPPING; NINETEENTH CENTURY; URBAN HISTORY; URBAN PLANNING;

EID: 22544468099     PISSN: 09639268     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0963926805002634     Document Type: Article

References (55)

1. The Tanzimat (reorganization/reforms) period started with the declaration of the Tanzimat edict, Hath Şerif of Gülhane, in 1839 under the rule of Sultan Abdülmecid and ended during the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II in 1876. For detailed information on the Tanzimat and reforms see: Halil Inalcik, 'Sened-i Ittifak ve Gülhane Hatt-i Hümâyûnu', Belleten, 27 (1964), 603-22;
2. Inalcik, 'Tanzimatin Uygulanmasi ve Sosyal Tepkileri', Belleten, 27 (1964), 623-49;
3. E.Z. Karal, 'Gülhane Hatt-i Hümâyununda Batinin Etkisi', Belleten, 27 (1964), 581-602;
4. R. Kaynar, Mustafa Reşit Paşa ve Tanzimat (Ankara, 1991);
5. B. Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London, 1961).
6. Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmet Efendi's voyage to France between 1720 and 1721 as the first exploratory Ottoman Embassy to France is commonly accepted in various academic works as an event that opened the door of western civilization to the Ottoman Empire. In particular, Çelebi Mehmet Efendi's descriptions of the palaces, parks and other public spaces in his Embassy accounts influenced the Ottoman administration and high-ranking elites. For detailed information about Çelebi Mehmet Efendi's voyage to France and its impacts on Ottoman culture see F.M. Göçek, East Encounters West: France and the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century (Washington DC, 1987).
7. For a detailed survey of the fires in Istanbul between the sixteenth and twentieth centuries see M. Cezar, Osmanli Başkenti İstanbul (Istanbul, 2002), 352-445.
8. Immigration from different parts of the Empire had been a problem for the Ottoman administration since the beginning of the eighteenth century. An imperial decree was issued and sent to the governors of Anatolia and Rumelia in 1721 to inhibit the massive immigration to Istanbul. In 1724 another decree was issued to employ Janissaries to control the gate of Istanbul, to stop the new immigrants entering the city. For eighteenth-century immigration and population statistics see M. Aktepe,'İstanbul'un Nüfus Mes'elesine Dair Bazi Vesikalar', Tarih Dergisi, 8 (1955), 1-31;
9. A. Refik, Hicrî On İkinci Asirda İstanbul Hayati (Istanbul, 1930), 80-106.
10. A total of six census surveys were carried out in Istanbul throughout the nineteenth century in 1830, 1838, 1844, 1856, 1882 and 1885. Istanbul's estimated population, which was 360,000 in 1830, more than doubled in the next 50 years reaching a figure of 873,000 in 1885. For detailed information about the censuses and statistics of Istanbul's population see K. Karpat, Ottoman Population 1830-1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics (Wisconsin, 1985), 86-107, 201-9.
11. For detailed information about Mustafa. Reşit Paşa's opinion about urban planning and architecture see M.C. Baysun, 'Mustafa Reşid Paşa' nin Siyasi Yazilari', İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Dergisi, 15 (1960), 124-7.
12. For Abdullah Efendi's memorandum see Kaynar, Mustafa Reşit Paşa, 4-13;
13. Karal, Selim III'ün Hatti Hümâyunlari (Nizâm-i Cedid) 1789-1807 (Ankara, 1946), 40, 112-20.
14. Although the first western style municipal organization was founded in 1855, the commencement of the effective municipal services could only be implemented after the establishment of the Altinci Daire-i Belediye (The Municipality of the Sixth District) in 1857 in the Pera, Galata and Tophane districts of the city.
15. Although many imperial orders were issued in the earlier centuries, the regular statutory control in development and construction works in the Ottoman Empire emerged in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. In parallel with the reforms in other areas, 'Ebniye Nizamnameleri' (building codes/regulations) began to be issued in by the Ottoman administration. The date of the first known building code goes back 1796. This was followed by the issue of later building codes/ regulations in 1807, 1848, 1849 and 1863. Ebniye Nizmanameleri provided standardization and restriction in building works and development control in terms of street width, setbacks from the site boundaries, height limitation and some technical requirements to prevent fire. In addition to the regulations and codes, the Ottoman administration adopted a Municipal Act in 1877 and a Building Act in 1882. For a detailed description of building and development control in the nineteenth-century Ottoman Empire see O.N. Ergin, Mecelle-i Umûr-i Belediyye (Istanbul, 1995), 937-62, 1031-72;
16. Cezar, Osmanli Başkenti, 304-51;
17. S. Denel, Batililaşma Sürecinde İstanbul'da Tasarim ve Diş mekanlarda Deǧişim ve Nedenleri (Ankara, 1982);
18. and Cezar, Osmanli Başkenti, 304-51.
19. For the emergence of the modern local governments and municipal organization in Turkey see Ergin, Mecelle-i Umûr-i Belediyye, 1257-535;
20. I. Ortayli, Tanzimattan Sonra Mahalli İdareler (Ankara, 1974);
21. Tanzimat Devrinde Osmanli Mahalli İdareleri (Ankara, 2000);
22. and S.T. Rosenthal, The Politics of Dependency: Urban Reform in Istanbul (Westport, CT, 1980).
23. This summary of the official document in this article is based on the simplified modern Turkish translation of the original text. The original document was written in Ottoman Turkish in Arabic script. The 1995 edition of Ergin's Mecelle-i Umûr-i Belediyye provides the original Ottoman Turkish document in Latin alphabet.
24. 1 zira is approximately 75 cm.
25. Divan-i Hümayun Buyruldu ve İlmuhaber Deftreri, p. 11, 25 Rebiülevvel 1255 (8 June 1839), cited in Ergin, Mecelle-i Umûr-i Belediyye, 1240-3. Ergin's Mecelle-i Umûr-i Belediyye was first published in 1922 in five volumes in Turkish in Arabic script. It was translated into modern Turkish and republished in eight volumes in 1995. This new edition has been referred in this article.
26. Cezar, Osmanli Başkenti;
27. D. Kuban, İstanbul Bir Kent Tarihi Bizantion, Konstantinopolis, İstanbul (Istanbul, 1996);
28. Z. Çelik, The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century (Seattle, 1986), and various other research papers and thesis.
29. Ergin argued that the 1839 Development Policy was prepared by von Moltke in his several works: Mecelle-i Umûr-i Belediyye, 1243-4;
30. İstanbulda İmar ve İskân Hareketleri (Istanbul, 1938), 28-33.
31. Çelik's The Remaking of Istanbul has been referred to by numerous Turkish and international researches about von Moltke's involvement in the modernization of Istanbul.
32. Çelik, The Remaking of Istanbul, 104-7.
33. Von Moltke is also credited as the author of the 1839 Policy in many several contemporary sources including Kuban, İstanbul Bir Kent Tarihi;
34. I. Tekeli, Türkiye'de Cumhuriyet Devrinde Kentsel Gelişme ve Kent Planlamast in 75 Yilda Deǧişen Kent ve Mimarlik (Istanbul, 1998) and many other young researchers' work that simply refer to Ergin's and Çelik's interpretation.
35. Cezar, Osmanli Başkenti, 325.
36. In 1835 von Moltke obtained the royal permission to go to Istanbul on a six-month leave. However, the Ottoman administration made an official request through the Prussian Embassy in Istanbul to the Prussian government to extend von Moltke's stay in Turkey in 1836. Consequently von Moltke became a military adviser to the Turkish army until 1839. For detailed information see M. Herms, Moltke's Life: Moltke his Life and Character Sketched in Journals, Letters, Memoirs, a Novel, and Autobiographical Notes (London, 1892), 16-17.
37. Von Moltke graduated from the Military Staff College in Berlin in 1826. In the spring of 1928 he was sent to the Topographical Office in Berlin, and subsequently he was appointed to prepare topographical surveys under the supervision of the Chief of the Staff of the Prussian army, General von Müffling. For detailed information on von Moltke's life and his military career see F.E. Whitton, Moltke (London, 1921). In addition to the surveys of Istanbul and the Bosphorus, von Moltke had drawn maps of several other towns and cities both in Anatolia and the Empire's European provinces including: Nizip, Urfa, Samsun, Maraş, Musul, Varna, Slistria and the places down the Danube.
38. Herms, Moltke's Life, 16.
39. A letter of W. v Krauseneck dated 19 Aug. 1837 clearly shows the Pussian government's appreciation for von Moltke's surveys and sketches. In his letter Krauseneck, the Chief of Prussian General Staff between 1829 and 1848, writes: The reports sent by Count Königsmark, your surveys and sketches, as well as an abstract of your report of June 7th concerning your journey in the suite of his Highness the Sultan, have been laid before his Majesty the King. Who expressed his satisfaction. I have also myself examined all these reports and papers with great interest, and I repeat that I have every reason to be satisfied with your contributions and reports, which always bear witness to your special knowledge, and clearness and soundness of your views'; Herms, Moltke's Life, 126-7.
40. The first edition of von Moltke's map was published by Simon Schropp in Berlin in 1842 at 1:25000 scale. The map was edited and re-published at 1:100000 scale by H. Kiepert in 1853.
41. H. von Moltke, Gesammelte Schriften und Denkwürdigkeiten des General-Feldmarschalls/Grafen Helmuth von Moltke, Achter Band - Briefe über Zustände und Begebenheiten in der Türkei aus den Jahren 1835 bis 1839 (Berlin, 1893), 117.
42. H. Örs, Moltke'nin Türkiye Mektuplari (Istanbul, 1999), 107.
43. The word 'plan', as derived from French, is used in Turkish language as it is used in English, In modern Turkish planning jargon the tenor of 'plan', however, is generally of a prepared plan (i.e. a development plan or a master plan) rather than a map or survey showing an existing situation.
44. H. von Moltke, Gesammelte Schriften und Denkwürdigkeiten des General-Feldmarschalls/Grafen Helmuth von Moltke Vierter Band - Briefe des General Feldmarschalls Grafen Helmuth von Moltke an Seine Mutter und an Seine Brüder Adolf und Ludwig (Berlin, 1891), 102-4.
45. Von Moltke, Briefe über Zustände und Begebenheiten in der Türkei, 89.
46. Von Moltke made this statement in one of his other letters to his mother on 20 Oct. 1836: Briefe des General Feldmarschalls Grafen Helmuth von Moltke an Seine Mutter, 98-9.
47. Von Moltke, Briefe über Zustände und Begebenheiten in der Türkei, 481.
48. The original text was published in Daheim, a German magazine of the 1860s in 1866. The autobiography was translated in English in Herms, Moltke's Life, 19-27.
49. Von Moltke writes in one of his letters dated 5 Sept. 1836 that Hüsrev Paşa ordered him to draw the best possible route for a road between the Galata Bridge and Divanyolu. In his letter, von Moltke states 'it was an easy task as the houses, shops and cafes on the route had been demolished. First Sultan Mahmud used this new road in his carriage', in Briefe über Zustände und Begebenheiten in der Türkei, 83. Thus von Moltke describes a small-scale task which had been given to him by the Ottoman administration. If von Moltke had been appointed by the Ottomans to prepare the 1839 Policy he would be expected to have mentioned such a vastly more important task in his memoirs or letters, but this does not occur.
50. Ergin, Mecelle-i Umûr-i Belediyye, 1244.
51. Çelik claims that 'Immediately after the declaration of the Tanzimat Charter, Mustafa Reşit Paşa's plan to appeal to foreign expertise was implemented by the government. A German engineer, Helmut Von Moltke, was hired in 1839 to improve Istanbul's street network. Von Moltke first drafted a plan of the city, then proposed a renovation scheme'; The Remaking of Istanbul, 50. The Development Policy, however, was dated 8 June 1839, almost five months earlier than the declaration of the Tanzimat edict, and von Moltke left Istanbul permanently on 9 September 1839, two months earlier than the declaration of the Tanzimat edict.
52. Çelik, The Remaking of Istanbul, 104.
53. For Çelik's claim about von Moltke's influence on the later development plans and regulations in Istanbul see: ibid., 50, 55, 161.
54. For the details of Henri Prost's work in Istanbul see H. Louis, L'Œuvre de Henri Prost, architecture et urbanisme (Paris, 1960).
55. For the impacts of the dominant political ideologies on the re-development of Istanbul during the Prost era see M. Gül and R. Lamb, 'Urban planning in Istanbul in the early republican period: Henri Prost's role in tensions among beautification, modernisation and peasantist ideology', Architectural Theory Review, 9 (2004), 59-81.