Where are the gardens? Early Iron Age horticulture in the Thukela River Basin of South Africa

World Archaeology

Volumn 37, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 307-328

  Greenfield, Haskel J ^a   Fowler, Kent D ^b   van Schalkwyk, Leonard O ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY   (Canada)

^c Thembeni Cultural Heritage   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Early Iron Age; Horticulture; Ndondondwane; Palaeobotanical remains; South Africa; Spatial organization; Tropical riverine ecology

Indexed keywords

HORTICULTURE; IRON AGE;

AFRICA; EASTERN HEMISPHERE; SOUTH AFRICA; SOUTHERN AFRICA; SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA; WORLD;

EID: 22144473348     PISSN: 00438243     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00438240500095496     Document Type: Article

References (40)

1. Bird, J. 1965 [1888]. The Annals of Natal, 1495-1845. 2 vols. Cape Town: C. Stuik [Pietermaritzburg: P. Davis and Sons].
2. Bisson, M. 2000. Precolonial copper metallurgy: sociopolitical context. In Ancient Africa Metallurgy: The Socio-cultural Context (eds M. Bisson, S. T Childes, P. de Barros and A. F. C. Holl). Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, pp. 83-145.
3. Champion, G. 1967. Journal of the Reverend George Champion, American Missionary in Zululand 1835-1839 (ed. Alan R. Booth). Cape Town: C. Struik.
4. Davison, P. 1988. The social use of domestic space in a Mpondo homestead. The South African Archaelogical Bulletin, 43: 100-8.
5. Fowler, K. D. 2002. Early Iron Age community organization in southern Africa: social and symbolic dimensions of ceramic production, use and discard at Ndondondwane. Doctoral dissertation, University of Alberta, Edmonton.
6. Fowler, K. D., Greenfield, H. J. and van Schalkwyk, L. O. 2000. The identification and significance of ceramic ecofacts from Early Iron Age Ndondondwane, South Africa. Southern African Field Archaeology, 9: 32-42.
7. Fowler, K. D., Greenfield, H. J. and van Schalkwyk, L. O. 2004. The effects of burrowing activity on archaeological sites: Ndondondwane, South Africa. Geoarchaeology, 19: 441-70.
8. Greenfield, H. J. and Miller, D. 2004. Metal production at Ndondondwane, an Early Iron Age site in KwaZulu/Natal, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31: 1511-32.
9. Greenfield, H. J. and van Schalkwyk, L. O. 2003. Intra-settlement social and economic organization of Early Iron Age farming communities in southern Africa: view from Ndondondwane. Azania, 38: 121-37.
10. Greenfield, H. J., van Schalkwyk, L. O. and Jongsma, T. L. 1997. Ndondondwane: preliminary report on the 1995 survey and excavations. Nyame Akuma, 47: 42-52.
11. Greenfield, H. J., van Schalkwyk, L. O. and Jongsma, T. L. 2000. Surface and subsurface reconnaissance at Ndondondwane: preliminary results of the 1995-97 field seasons. Southern African Field Archaeology, 9: 5-16.
12. Hall, M. 1981. Settlement Patterns in the Iron Age of Zululand: An Ecological Interpretation. Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 9. Oxford: BAR International Series 119.
13. Huffman, T. N. 1986. Iron Age settlement patterns and the origins of class distinction in southern Africa. Advances in World Archaeology, 5: 291-338.
14. Huffman, T. N. 1993. Broederstroorn and the Central Cattle Pattern. South African Journal of Science, 89: 220-26.
15. Huffman, T. N. 2001. The Central Cattle Pattern and interpreting the past. Southern African Humanities, 13: 19-35.
16. Klapwijk, M. 1973. An Early Iron Age site near Tzaneen, N. E. Transvaal. South African Journal of Science, 29: 19-23.
17. Kuper, A. 1982. Cattle for Wives: Bridewealth and Marriage in Southern Africa. London: Routlege & Kegan Paul.
18. Loubser, J. H. N. 1993. Ndondondwane: the significance of feature and finds from a ninth-century site on the lower Thukela River, Natal. Natal Museum Journal of Humanities, 5: 109-51.
19. Mack, K., Maggs, T. and Oswald, D. 1991. Homesteads in two rural Zulu communities: an ethnoarchaeological investigation. Natal Museum Journal of Humanities, 3: 79-129.
20. Maggs, T. O. 1980. The Iron Age sequence south of the Vaal and Pongola Rivers: some historical implications. Journal of African History, 21: 1-15.
21. Maggs, T. O. 1984a. Ndondondwane; a preliminary report on an Early Iron Age site on the lower Tugela River. Annals of the Natal Museum, 26: 71-94.
22. Maggs, T. O. 1984b. Iron Age settlement and subsistence patterns in the Tugela River Basin, Natal. In Frontiers of Southern African Archaeology Today (eds M. Hall, G. Avery, D. M. Avery, M. L. Wilson and A. J. B. Humphreys). Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 10. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, International Series 207, pp. 194-206.
23. Maggs, T. O. 1984c. The Iron Age south of the Zambezi. In Southern African Prehistory and Paleoenvironments (ed. R. Klein). Rotterdam: Balken, pp. 329-60.
24. Maggs, T. O. 1989. The Iron Age farming communities. In Natal and Zululand: From Earliest Time to 1910: A New History (eds A. Duminy and B. Guest). Pietermaritzberg: University of Natal Press/ Shuter & Shooter, pp. 28-48.
25. Maggs, T. O. 1995. The Early Iron Age in the extreme south: some patterns and problems. Azania, 29/30: 171-8.
26. Maggs, T. and Ward, V. 1984. Early Iron Age sites in the Muden area of Natal. Annals of the Natal Museum, 26: 105-40.
27. Maggs, T., Oswald, D., Hall, M. and Rüther, H. 1986. Spatial parameters of Late Iron Age settlements in the upper Thukela Valley. Annals of the Natal Museum, 27: 455-79.
28. Maphumulo, P. 1986. Middledrift archaeological sites: soil survey. Unpublished report. Eshowe: KwaZulu Government Service, Department of Agriculture and Forestry.
29. Miller, D. 2002. Smelter and smith: Iron age metal fabrication technology in southern Africa. Journal of Archeological Science, 29: 1083-131.
30. Miller, D. and Whitelaw, G. 1994. Early Iron Age metal working from the site of KwaGandaganda, Natal, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 49: 79-89.
31. Mitchell, P. 2002. The Archaeology of Southern Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
32. Perestrello, M. de M. 1898. Narrative of the wreck of the ship St. Benedict [São Bento]. In Records of South-Eastern Africa (ed. G. M. Theal). London: William Clowes, pp. 218-85.
33. Reid, A. and Young, R. 2000. Pottery abrasion and the preparation of African grains. Antiquity, 74: 101-11.
34. van Schalkwyk, L. O. 1992. Society in transformation: Early Iron Age mixed-farming communities in the Lower Thukela Basin, Zululand. Master's thesis, Department of Archaeology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town.
35. van Schalkwyk, L. O. 1994a. Wosi: an Early Iron Age village in the lower Thukela Basin, Natal. Natal Museum Journal of Humanities, 6: 65-117.
36. van Schalkwyk, L. O. 1994b. Mamba confluence: a preliminary report on an Early Iron Age industrial centre in the lower Thukela Basin, Natal. Natal Museum Journal of Humanities, 6: 119-52.
37. van Schalkwyk, L. O. 1995. Settlement shifts and socio-economic transformations in early farming communities in the lower Thukela basin, Zululand. a revisionist model. Azania, 29/30: 187-98.
38. van Schalkwyk, L. O., Greenfield, H. J. and Jongsma, T. L. 1997. Ndondondwane: preliminary report on the 1995 survey and excavations. Southern African Field Archaeology, 6: 61-79.
39. Whitelaw, G. D. 1994. KwaGandaganda: settlement patters in the Natal Early Iron Age. Natal Museum Journal of Humanities, 6: 1-64.
40. Whitelaw, G. D. and Moon, M. 1996. The ceramics and distribution of pioneer agriculturalists in KwaZulu-Natal. Natal Museum Journal of Humanities, 8: 53-79.