Second elections in Africa

Journal of Democracy

Volumn 9, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 65-66

  Bratton, Michael ^a  

^a MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 22044453029     PISSN: 10455736     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jod.1998.0041     Document Type: Article

References (16)

1. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 266-67. According to this standard, the consolidation of democracy occurs whenever the winners of a founding election are defeated in a subsequent contest, and the new winners themselves later abide an electoral turnover. Actually, the "two-turnover test" may be a misnomer since its fulfillment actually calls for three elections, potentially involving three alternations.
2. Terry Lynn Karl, "Imposing Consent: Electoralism and Democratization in El Salvador," in Paul W. Drake and Eduardo Silva, eds., Elections and Democratization in Latin America, 1980-1985 (La Jolla, Calif.: University of California-San Diego, Center for International Studies, 1986), 9-36.
3. Fareed Zakaria, "The Rise of Illiberal Democracy," Foreign Affairs 76 (November-December 1997): 22-43.
4. Mitchell A. Seligson and John A. Booth, Elections and Democracy in Central America, Revisited (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 18.
5. Michael Bratton and Nicolas van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 6.
6. "Sierra Leone: Falling Out Parade," Africa Confidential, 29 March 1996, 4.
7. "Gabon: Have Petrol, Will Travel," Africa Confidential, 4 October 1996, 6.
8. "Côte d'Ivoire: No Contest," Africa Confidential, 20 October 1995, 7.
9. "Low Turnout of Voters in Comoros Islands Poll," Reuters, 2 December 1996.
10. See Michael Bratton and Daniel Posner, "A First Look at Second Elections in Africa, with Illustrations from Zambia," in Richard Joseph, ed., State, Conflict, and Democracy in Africa (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1998).
11. National Democratic Institute, "Preliminary Statement by the NDI International Observer Delegation to the December 7 Elections in Ghana" (Accra: NDI, 10 December 1996).
12. See also "Interim Report of Domestic Election Observers" (Accra: Network of Domestic Election Observers [NEDEO], undated);
13. and International Foundation for Election Systems, "Supporting the Electoral Process in Ghana: Results of the 1996 Presidential and Parliamentary Elections" (Washington, D.C.: IFES, January 1997).
14. In Comoros, a new head of government was elected, but under circumstances where the incumbent (Djohar) did not run again (see "Yes?" in Table 2, column 7).
15. "Benin's Ex-President Says His Loss Is a Win," Christian Science Monitor, 22 August 1996.
16. Of the 19.1 percent of Zambians who disputed the quality of the 1996 elections, just 16.4 percent (i.e., 3.1 percent of the national population) said they did so because of the exclusion of Kaunda from the presidential race. Most cited other reasons. See Michael Bratton, Philip Alderfer, and Neo Simutanyi, "Political Participation in Zambia, 1991-1996: Trends and Determinants" (Michigan State University Working Papers on Political Reform in Africa, No. 16, East Lansing, 1997), 7.