History and international relations theory: Not use or abuse, but fit or misfit

International Security

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 64-74

  Schroeder, Paul W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 21744449147     PISSN: 01622889     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1162/isec.22.1.64     Document Type: Review

References (29)

1. Gary King, Sidney Verba, and Robert O. Keohane, Designing Social Inquiry (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 36-39.
2. Lewis B. Namier, "History," in Fritz Stern, ed., The Varieties of History (Cleveland, Ohio: World, 1956), p. 379.
3. For good examples, see Lucien Bély, Espions et ambassadeurs au temps de Louis XIV (Paris: Fayard, 1990), and Enno E. Kraehe, Metternich's German Policy: The Congress of Vienna, 1814-1815 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1983).
4. For good examples, see Lucien Bély, Espions et ambassadeurs au temps de Louis XIV (Paris: Fayard, 1990), and Enno E. Kraehe, Metternich's German Policy: The Congress of Vienna, 1814-1815 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1983).
5. See, for example, Albert Sorel, L'Europe et la révolution française, 8 vols. (Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1893-1912); Edouard Driault, Napoléon et l'Europe, 6 vols. (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1910-27); Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962-64); Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1815-1822 (London: G. Bell, 1925); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812-1815 (London: G. Bell, 1931); William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1935); William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871-1890 (New York: Knopf, 1939); A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1954); Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980); and Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970-80). All these works are filled with narrative and descriptive detail; but all, including the most positivist and fact-oriented, have clear if sometimes implicit theses and advance broad explanations and generalizations.
6. See, for example, Albert Sorel, L'Europe et la révolution française, 8 vols. (Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1893-1912); Edouard Driault, Napoléon et l'Europe, 6 vols. (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1910-27); Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962-64); Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1815-1822 (London: G. Bell, 1925); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812-1815 (London: G. Bell, 1931); William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1935); William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871-1890 (New York: Knopf, 1939); A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1954); Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980); and Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970-80). All these works are filled with narrative and descriptive detail; but all, including the most positivist and fact-oriented, have clear if sometimes implicit theses and advance broad explanations and generalizations.
7. See, for example, Albert Sorel, L'Europe et la révolution française, 8 vols. (Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1893-1912); Edouard Driault, Napoléon et l'Europe, 6 vols. (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1910-27); Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962-64); Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1815-1822 (London: G. Bell, 1925); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812-1815 (London: G. Bell, 1931); William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1935); William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871-1890 (New York: Knopf, 1939); A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1954); Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980); and Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970-80). All these works are filled with narrative and descriptive detail; but all, including the most positivist and fact-oriented, have clear if sometimes implicit theses and advance broad explanations and generalizations.
8. See, for example, Albert Sorel, L'Europe et la révolution française, 8 vols. (Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1893-1912); Edouard Driault, Napoléon et l'Europe, 6 vols. (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1910-27); Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962-64); Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1815-1822 (London: G. Bell, 1925); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812-1815 (London: G. Bell, 1931); William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1935); William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871-1890 (New York: Knopf, 1939); A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1954); Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980); and Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970-80). All these works are filled with narrative and descriptive detail; but all, including the most positivist and fact-oriented, have clear if sometimes implicit theses and advance broad explanations and generalizations.
9. See, for example, Albert Sorel, L'Europe et la révolution française, 8 vols. (Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1893-1912); Edouard Driault, Napoléon et l'Europe, 6 vols. (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1910-27); Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962-64); Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1815-1822 (London: G. Bell, 1925); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812-1815 (London: G. Bell, 1931); William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1935); William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871-1890 (New York: Knopf, 1939); A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1954); Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980); and Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970-80). All these works are filled with narrative and descriptive detail; but all, including the most positivist and fact-oriented, have clear if sometimes implicit theses and advance broad explanations and generalizations.
10. See, for example, Albert Sorel, L'Europe et la révolution française, 8 vols. (Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1893-1912); Edouard Driault, Napoléon et l'Europe, 6 vols. (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1910-27); Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962-64); Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1815-1822 (London: G. Bell, 1925); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812-1815 (London: G. Bell, 1931); William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1935); William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871-1890 (New York: Knopf, 1939); A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1954); Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980); and Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970-80). All these works are filled with narrative and descriptive detail; but all, including the most positivist and fact-oriented, have clear if sometimes implicit theses and advance broad explanations and generalizations.
11. See, for example, Albert Sorel, L'Europe et la révolution française, 8 vols. (Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1893-1912); Edouard Driault, Napoléon et l'Europe, 6 vols. (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1910-27); Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962-64); Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1815-1822 (London: G. Bell, 1925); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812-1815 (London: G. Bell, 1931); William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1935); William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871-1890 (New York: Knopf, 1939); A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1954); Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980); and Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970-80). All these works are filled with narrative and descriptive detail; but all, including the most positivist and fact-oriented, have clear if sometimes implicit theses and advance broad explanations and generalizations.
12. See, for example, Albert Sorel, L'Europe et la révolution française, 8 vols. (Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1893-1912); Edouard Driault, Napoléon et l'Europe, 6 vols. (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1910-27); Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962-64); Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1815-1822 (London: G. Bell, 1925); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812-1815 (London: G. Bell, 1931); William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1935); William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871-1890 (New York: Knopf, 1939); A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1954); Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980); and Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970-80). All these works are filled with narrative and descriptive detail; but all, including the most positivist and fact-oriented, have clear if sometimes implicit theses and advance broad explanations and generalizations.
13. See, for example, Albert Sorel, L'Europe et la révolution française, 8 vols. (Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1893-1912); Edouard Driault, Napoléon et l'Europe, 6 vols. (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1910-27); Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962-64); Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1815-1822 (London: G. Bell, 1925); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812-1815 (London: G. Bell, 1931); William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1935); William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871-1890 (New York: Knopf, 1939); A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1954); Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980); and Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970-80). All these works are filled with narrative and descriptive detail; but all, including the most positivist and fact-oriented, have clear if sometimes implicit theses and advance broad explanations and generalizations.
14. See, for example, Albert Sorel, L'Europe et la révolution française, 8 vols. (Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1893-1912); Edouard Driault, Napoléon et l'Europe, 6 vols. (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1910-27); Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962-64); Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1815-1822 (London: G. Bell, 1925); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812-1815 (London: G. Bell, 1931); William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1935); William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871-1890 (New York: Knopf, 1939); A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1954); Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980); and Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970-80). All these works are filled with narrative and descriptive detail; but all, including the most positivist and fact-oriented, have clear if sometimes implicit theses and advance broad explanations and generalizations.
15. See, for example, Albert Sorel, L'Europe et la révolution française, 8 vols. (Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1893-1912); Edouard Driault, Napoléon et l'Europe, 6 vols. (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1910-27); Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962-64); Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1815-1822 (London: G. Bell, 1925); Charles K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812-1815 (London: G. Bell, 1931); William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1935); William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871-1890 (New York: Knopf, 1939); A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1954); Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980); and Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970-80). All these works are filled with narrative and descriptive detail; but all, including the most positivist and fact-oriented, have clear if sometimes implicit theses and advance broad explanations and generalizations.
16. Giambattista Vico indicated this point in the early eighteenth century in his aphorism Verum et factum convertuntur. Roughly translated, this means: We only truly know what we ourselves have made.
17. Herbert Butterfield, History and Human Relations (London: Collins, 1951).
18. For an analysis of the distinction and its consequences for history and other disciplines, see Michael Oakeshott, On Human Conduct (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972).
19. The phrase is borrowed from Louis O. Mink. See Louis O. Mink, "Narrative Form as a Cognitive Instrument," in Robert H. Canary and Henry Kosicki, eds., The Writing of History: Literary Form and Historical Understanding (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), pp. 129-150, and Louis O. Mink, Historical Understanding (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987).
20. The phrase is borrowed from Louis O. Mink. See Louis O. Mink, "Narrative Form as a Cognitive Instrument," in Robert H. Canary and Henry Kosicki, eds., The Writing of History: Literary Form and Historical Understanding (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), pp. 129-150, and Louis O. Mink, Historical Understanding (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987).
21. See Paul W. Schroeder, "World War I as Galloping Gertie," reprinted in various collections of essays on the origins of the war, including H.W. Koch, ed., The Origins of the First World War, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1984), and Holger H. Herwig, ed., The Outbreak of World War I, 5th ed. (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1991).
22. See Paul W. Schroeder, "World War I as Galloping Gertie," reprinted in various collections of essays on the origins of the war, including H.W. Koch, ed., The Origins of the First World War, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1984), and Holger H. Herwig, ed., The Outbreak of World War I, 5th ed. (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1991).
23. This analogy is also suggested by Namier, "History."
24. For example, in "Why NATO Survives," International Organization, Vol. 50, No. 3 (Summer 1996), pp. 445-475, Robert B. McCalla cites as one historical example of the different directions NATO might take the case of post-1815 Europe: "It [NATO] might lose cohesion and direction, the fate of the coalition of Austria, England, Prussia, and Russia that defeated Napoleon in 1815" (p. 445). Because I have devoted great effort to showing how this coalition actually survived and retained its essential cohesion for decades, I was interested in the author's ground for his interpretation. See Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics 1763-1848 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1994). His source was a general analysis of alliance cohesion by three political scientists published in 1973, which makes this judgment about the 1815 coalition on the basis of a single quotation dating from 1836 cited in an article surveying nineteenth-century diplomacy.
25. For example, in "Why NATO Survives," International Organization, Vol. 50, No. 3 (Summer 1996), pp. 445-475, Robert B. McCalla cites as one historical example of the different directions NATO might take the case of post-1815 Europe: "It [NATO] might lose cohesion and direction, the fate of the coalition of Austria, England, Prussia, and Russia that defeated Napoleon in 1815" (p. 445). Because I have devoted great effort to showing how this coalition actually survived and retained its essential cohesion for decades, I was interested in the author's ground for his interpretation. See Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics 1763-1848 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1994). His source was a general analysis of alliance cohesion by three political scientists published in 1973, which makes this judgment about the 1815 coalition on the basis of a single quotation dating from 1836 cited in an article surveying nineteenth-century diplomacy.
26. I can only offer as illustration here two examples of political science works in which the fit between history and international relations analysis seems to me very close and no basic problems of misfit arise, and one in which, although the approach to history and the historical research are good, certain problems of misfit and misapplication indicated above seem to arise. For the former, see J.L. Richardson, Crisis Diplomacy (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994) and Richard Ned Lebow, Between Peace and War (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981). For the latter, see Stephen M. Walt, Revolution and War (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996).
27. I can only offer as illustration here two examples of political science works in which the fit between history and international relations analysis seems to me very close and no basic problems of misfit arise, and one in which, although the approach to history and the historical research are good, certain problems of misfit and misapplication indicated above seem to arise. For the former, see J.L. Richardson, Crisis Diplomacy (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994) and Richard Ned Lebow, Between Peace and War (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981). For the latter, see Stephen M. Walt, Revolution and War (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996).
28. I can only offer as illustration here two examples of political science works in which the fit between history and international relations analysis seems to me very close and no basic problems of misfit arise, and one in which, although the approach to history and the historical research are good, certain problems of misfit and misapplication indicated above seem to arise. For the former, see J.L. Richardson, Crisis Diplomacy (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994) and Richard Ned Lebow, Between Peace and War (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981). For the latter, see Stephen M. Walt, Revolution and War (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996).
29. A recent example is Edward Mansfield, Power, Trade, and War (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994).