Subthreshold PTSD: A comparison of alcohol, depression, and health problems in Canadian peacekeepers with different levels of traumatic stress

Stress, Trauma and Crisis

Volumn 8, Issue 2-3, 2005, Pages 195-213

  Yarvis, Jeffrey S ^a,c   Bordnick, Patrick S ^a   Spivey, Christina A ^a   Pedlar, David ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA   (United States)

^b Veterans Affairs Canada   (Canada)

^c Box 726 ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 21644446486     PISSN: 15434613     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/15434610590956949     Document Type: Article

References (64)

1. Allen, J. P., Litten, R. Z., Fertig, J. B., and Babor, T. F. (1997). A review of research on Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 21(4), 613-619.
2. American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 3rd Ed. Washington, D.C.: Author.
3. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th Ed. Washington, D.C.: Author.
4. Asmundson, G. J. G., Stein, M. B., and McCreary, D. (2002). PTSD symptoms influence health status of deployed peacekeepers and non-deployed personnel. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190(12), 807-815.
5. Asmundson, G. J. G., Wright, K., McCreary, D., and Pedlar, D. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in United Nations peacekeepers: An examination of factor structure and the influence of chronic pain. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 32(1), 26-37.
6. Babor, T. F., de la Fuente, J. R., and Saunders, J. (1992). AUDIT, The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: Guidelines for use in primary health care. (PSA/92.4). Geneva: World Health Organization.
7. Beckham, J. C., Crawford, A. L., Feldman, M. E., Kirby, A. C., Hertzberg, M. A., Davidson, J. R., et al. (1997). Chronic posttraumatic stress disorder and chronic pain in Vietnam veterans. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 43(4), 379-389.
8. Beckham, J. C., Moore, S. D., Feldman, M. E., Herzberg, M. A., Kirby, A. C., and Fairbank, J. A. (1998). Health status, somatization and posttraumatic stress disorder severity in Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1565-1569.
9. Birmes, P., Carreras, D., Ducassé, J., Charlet, J., Warner, B. A., Lauque, D., et al. (2001). Peritraumatic dissociation, acute stress, and early posttraumatic stress disorder in victims of general crime. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 46(7), 649-651.
10. Black, W. G. (1993). Military-induced family separation. Social Work, 38, 273-280.
11. Blanchard, E. B., Jones-Alexander, J., Buckley, T. C., and Forneris, C. A. (1996). Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behavior Research and Therapy, 34, 669-673.
12. Bleich, A., Koslowsky, A. D., and Lerer, B. (1997). Post-traumatic stress disorder and depression: An analysis of comorbidity. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 479-482.
13. Bleich, A., Siegei, B., Garb, R., and Lerer, B. (1986). Post-traumatic stress disorder following combat exposure. British Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 365-369
14. Boisvert, J. A., McCreary, D., Wright, K., and Asmundson, G. J. G. (2003). Factor validity of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) Scale in military peacekeepers. Depression and Anxiety, 17, 19-25.
15. Bremner, D. J., Southwick, S., Darnell, A., and Charney, D. S. (1996). Chronic PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans: course of illness and substance abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(3), 369-375.
16. Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., Andreski, P., and Peterson, E. L. (1991). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Archives in General Psychiatry, 48, 216-222.
17. Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., Peterson, E. L., and Schultz, L. R. (2000). A second look at comorbidity in victims of trauma: The posttraumatic stress disorder - major depression connection. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 902-909.
18. Brown, P. J. and Wolfe, J. (1994). Substance abuse and post-traumatic stress disorder comorbidity. Drug and Alcohol Dependency, 35, 51-59.
19. Clements, R. (1998). A critical evaluation of several alcohol screening instruments using the CIDI-SAM as a criterion measure. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(5), 985-993.
20. Clum, G. A., Calhoun, K. S., and Kimerling, R. (2000). Associations among symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder and self-reported health in sexually assaulted women. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 188, 671-678.
21. Devins, G. M. and Orme, C. M. (1985). Center for epidemiologic studies depression scale. In D. J. Keyser and R. C. Sweetland (Eds.), Test critiques: Vol. 2. Kansas City, MO: Test Corporation of America.
22. Ewing, J. A. (1984). Detecting alcoholism: The CAGE questionnaire. Journal of the American Medical Association, 252, 1905-1907.
23. Forbes, D., Creamer, M., and Biddle, D. (2001). The validity of the PTSD checklist as a measure of symptomatic change in combat-related PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 977-986.
24. Hathaway, S. R. and McKinley, J. C. (1989). MMPI-2 (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2). University of Minnesota Press.
25. Hays, R. D., Merz, J. F., and Nicholas, R. (1995). Response burden, reliability, and validity of the CAGE, Short MAST, and AUDIT alcohol screening measures. Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 27, 277-280.
26. Hotopf, M., David, A. S., Hull, L., Ismail, K., Palmer, I., Unwin, C., et al. (2003). The health effects of peace-keeping in UK Armed Forces: Bosnia 19921996. Predictors of Psychological Symptoms. Psychological Medicine, 33, 155-162.
27. Kimerling, R., Glum, G. A., and Wolfe, J. (2000). Relationships among trauma exposure, chronic posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and self-reported health in women: Replication and extension. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 115-128.
28. King, M. E. and Bordnick, P. S. (2002). Alcohol use disorders: A social worker's guide to clinical assessment. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 2(1), 3-31.
29. Komar, Z. and Vukusic, H. (1999). Posttraumatic stress disorder in Croatia war veterans: Prevalence and psycho-social characteristics. In D. Dekaris and A. Sabioncello (Eds.), New insight in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (pp. 42-44). Zagreb, Croatia: Croatian Academy of Science and Arts.
30. Kozaric-Kovacic, D. (1999). PTSD and comorbidity. In D. Dekaris and A. Sabioncello (Eds.), New insight in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Zagreb, Croatia: Croatian Academy of Science and Arts.
31. Kulka, R. A., Schienger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Hough, R. L., Jordan, B. K., Marmar, C. R., et al. (1990). Trauma and the Vietnam war generation. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
32. Kulka, R. A., Schienger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Hough, B. K., Marmar, C. R., and Weiss, D. S. (1991). Assessment of PTSD in the community: Prospects and pitfalls from recent studies of Vietnam veterans. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3, 547-560.
33. Lerer, B., Bleich, A., Kotler, M., Garb, R., Hertzberg, M. A., and Levin, B. (1987). Post-traumatic stress disorder in Israeli combat veterans. Archives in General Psychiatry, 44, 976-981.
34. Marshall, R. D., Olfson, M., Hellman, F., Blanco, C., Guardino, M., and Struening, E. L. (2001). Comorbidity, impairment and suicidality in subthreshold PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1467-1473.
35. Marshall, R. P., Jorm, A. F., and Grayson, D. A. (1998). Posttraumatic stress disorder and other predictors of health care consumption by Vietnam veterans. Psychiatric Services, 49, 1609-1611.
36. McFall, M., Makcay, P., and Donovan, D. (1992). Combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder and severity of substance abuse in Vietnam veterans. Journal of Studies of Alcohol, 53, 357-363.
37. McQuaid, J. R., Pedrelli, P., McCahill, M. E., and Stein, M. B. (2001). Reported trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder and major depression among primary care patients. Psychological Medicine, 31, 1249-1257.
38. Mehlum, L. (1998). Alcohol and stress in Norwegian UN peace-keepers. Paper presented at the International conference on the psycho-social consequences of war, Dubrovnik, Croatia.
39. Mollica, R. F., Mclness, K., and Sarajliac, N. (1999). Disability associated with psychiatric comorbidity and health status in Bosnian refugees living in Croatia. Journal of the American Medical Association, 282, 433-439.
40. Passey, G. (1995). Psychological consequences of Canadian U.N. peacekeeping duties in Croatia and Bosnia 1992-93. Paris, France: 4th European Conference on Traumatic Stress.
41. Powell, J. E. and McInness, K. (1994). Alcohol use among older hospital patients: Findings from an Australian study. Drug and Alcohol Review, 13, 5-12.
42. Radloff, L. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measures, 1, 385-401.
43. Resnick, H. S., Acierno, R., and Kilpatrick, D. G. (1997). Health impact of internal personal violence 2: Medical and mental health outcomes. Behavioral Medicine, 23, 65-78.
44. Sabin, M., Cardozo, B. L., Nackerud, L., Kaiser, R., and Varese, L. (2003). Guatemalan refugees twenty years later: Factors associated with poor mental health outcomes. Unpublished manuscript accepted by JAMA, Athens, GA.
45. Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Jordan, B. K., and Caddell. (1999). Combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: Prevalence, risk factors and comorbidity. In P. A. Saigh and J. D. Bremner (Eds.), Posttraumatic stress disorder: A comprehensive text. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
46. Schnurr, P. P. and Jankowski, M. K. (1999). Physical health and post-traumatic stress disorder: Review and synthesis. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 4, 295-304.
47. Schnurr, P. P. and Spiro, A., III. (1999). Combat exposure, PTSD symptoms, and health behaviors as predictors of self-reported physical health status in older veterans. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 187, 353-359.
48. Schutzwohl, M. and Maercker, A. (1999). Effects of varying diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder are endorsing the concept of partial PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12(1).
49. Selzer, M. L. (1971). The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test: The quest for a new diagnostic instrument. American Journal of Psychiatry, 127, 1653-1656.
50. Shalev, A. Y., Freedman, S., and Peri, T. (1998). Prospective study of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following trauma. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 630-637.
51. Shigemura, J. and Nomura, S. (2002). Mental health issues of peacekeeping workers. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 56, 483-491.
52. Skinner, H. and Allen, B. (1982). Alcohol dependence syndrome: measurement and validation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91(3), 199-209.
53. Southwick, S. M., Morgan, C. A., Darnell, A., Bremmer, D. J., Nicolau, A. L., Nagy, L. M., et al. (1993). Trauma-related Symptoms in veterans of Operation Desert Storm: A 2-year Follow up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(8), 1150-1158.
54. Spivak, B., Segal, M., Laufer, N., Mester, R., and Weitzman, A. (2000). Lifetime psychiatric morbidity rate in Israel non-help-seeking patients with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 57, 185-188.
55. Stein, M. B. and Kennedy, C. (2001). Major depressive and post-traumatic stress disorder comorbidity in female victims of intimate partner violence. Journal of Affective Disorders, 66, 133-138.
56. Stein, M. B., Walker, J. R., Hazen, A. L., and Forder, D. R. (1997). Full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder: Findings from a community survey. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(8), 1114-1119.
57. Wagner, A. W., Wolfe, J., Rotnitsky, A., et al. (2000). An investigation of the impact of posttraumatic stress disorder on physical health. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 41-55.
58. Weathers, F. W., Litz, B., Herman, D. S., Huska, J. A., and Keane, T. M. (1993). The PTSD Checklist: Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. San Antonio, TX: Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies.
59. Wedding, D. (1987). Substance abuse in the Vietnam veteran. AAOHN Journal, 35, 74-76.
60. Weiss, D. S., Marmar, C. R., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Jordan, B. K., Hough, R. L., et al. (1992). The prevalence of lifetime and partial post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam theater veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5(3), 365-376.
61. Zatzick, D., Marmar, C. R., and Weiss, D. S. (1997). Posttraumatic stress disorder and functioning and quality of life outcomes in a nationally representative sample of male Vietnam veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1690-1694.
62. Zlotnick, C., Franklin, C. L., and Zimmerman, M. (2002). Does "subthreshold" posttraumatic stress disorder have any clinical relevance? Comprehensive Psychiatry, 43(6), 413-419.
63. Zlotnick, C., Warshaw, M., and Shea, M. T. (1999). Chronicity in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and predictors of course of comorbid PTSD in patients with anxiety disorders. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12, 89-100.
64. Zoellner, L. A., Goodwin, M. L., and Foa, E. B. (2000). PTSD severity and health perceptions in female victims of sexual assault. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 635-649.