Radiation effectiveness factors for use in calculating probability of causation of radiogenic cancers

Health Physics

Volumn 89, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 3-32

  Kocher, D C ^a   Apostoaei, A I ^b   Hoffman, F O ^a  

^a SENES Oak Ridge Incorporated   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

Probability of causation; Radiation effectiveness factor; Radiation risk; Relative biological effectiveness

Indexed keywords

RADIOISOTOPE; COBALT;

ALPHA RADIATION; CANCER RISK; CARCINOGENESIS; DECISION MAKING; DOSE CALCULATION; ELECTRON; EVALUATION; FISSION NEUTRON; GAMMA RADIATION; HUMAN; LEUKEMIA; LONG TERM EXPOSURE; MEDICAL INFORMATION; NEUTRON; PHOTON; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROBABILITY; RADIATION CARCINOGENESIS; RADIATION DOSE; RADIATION DOSE DISTRIBUTION; RADIATION ENERGY; RADIATION HAZARD; RADIATION RESPONSE; RADIOBIOLOGY; REVIEW; SOLID TUMOR; STATISTICS; ALGORITHM; ANTIBODY SPECIFICITY; ARTICLE; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; BODY BURDEN; DOSE RESPONSE; EPIDEMIOLOGY; METHODOLOGY; RADIATION INJURY; RADIATION MONITORING; RADIATION PROTECTION; RELATIVE BIOLOGIC EFFECTIVENESS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; STATISTICAL MODEL; UNITED STATES;

ALGORITHMS; BODY BURDEN; CAUSALITY; COBALT RADIOISOTOPES; DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP, DRUG; GAMMA RAYS; HUMANS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; MODELS, STATISTICAL; NEOPLASMS, RADIATION-INDUCED; ORGAN SPECIFICITY; RADIATION DOSAGE; RADIATION MONITORING; RADIATION PROTECTION; RELATIVE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTIVENESS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 21544474406     PISSN: 00179078     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/01.HP.0000154172.48895.45     Document Type: Review

References (139)

1. Bauchinger M. Cytogenetic effects in human lymphocytes as a dosimetry system. In: Eistert WG, Mendelsohn ML, eds. Biological dosimetry. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1984: 15-24.
2. Bocian E, Ziembia-Zak EB, Rosiek O, Sablinski J. Chromosome aberration in human lymphocytes exposed to tritiated water in vitro. Current Topics Radiat Res Q 12:168-181; 1977.
3. Boecker BB, Hahn FF, Muggenburg BA, Guilmette RA, Griffith WC, McClellan RO. The relative effectiveness of inhaled alpha and beta emitting radionuclides in producing lung cancer. In: Radiation protection practice. Proceedings of the seventh international congress of IRPA. Sydney: Pergamon Press; Vol. II; 1988: 1059-1062.
4. Bonassi S, Hagmar L, Stroemberg U, Huici Montagud A, Tinnerberg H, Forni A, Heikkila P, Wanders S, Wilhardt P, Hansteen I-L, Knudsen LE, Norpa H, for the European Study Group on Cytogenetic Biomarkers and Health (ESCH). Chromosome aberrations in lymphocytes predict human cancer independently of exposure to carcinogens. Cancer Res 60:1619-1625; 2000.
5. Brenner DJ. The microdosimetry of radon daughters and its significance. Radiat Prot Dosim 31:399-403; 1990.
6. Brenner DJ. Does fractionation decrease the risk of breast cancer induced by low-LET radiation? Radiat Res 151:225-229; 1999.
7. Brenner DJ, Amols HI. Enhanced risk from low-energy screen-film mammography x rays. Brit J Radiol 62:910-914; 1989.
8. Brewen JG, Luippold HE. Radiation-induced human chromosome aberrations: in vitro dose rate studies. Mutat Res 12:305-314; 1971.
9. Brewen JG, Preston RL, Littlefield LG. Radiation induced human chromosome aberrations. III. Aberration yields following an accidental whole-body exposure to 60Co gammarays. Radiat Res 49:647-656; 1972.
10. Broerse JJ, van Bekkum DW, Zoetelief J, Zurcher C. Relative biological effectiveness for neutron carcinogenesis in monkeys and rats. Radiat Res 128:S128-S135; 1991.
11. Brooks AL. Chromosome damage in liver cells from low dose rate alpha, beta, and gamma irradiation: Derivation of RBE. Science 190:1090-1092; 1975.
12. Brooks AL, Mewhinney JA, McClellan RO. The in vivo cytogenetic effects of 252Cf on liver and bone marrow of the Chinese hamster. Health Phys 22:701-706; 1972.
13. Byrne BJ, Lee WR. Relative biological effectiveness of tritiated water to gamma radiation for germ line mutations. Radiat Res 117:469-479; 1989.
14. Carnes BA, Grahn D, Thompson JF. Dose response modeling of the life shortening in a retrospective analysis of the combined data from the JANUS program at Argonne National Laboratory. Radiat Res 119:39-56; 1989.
15. Carsten AL, Commerford SL. Dominant lethal mutations in mice resulting from chronic tritiated water (HTO) ingestion. Radiat Res 66:609-614; 1976.
16. Chopra C, Heddle JA. Cytogenetic measurements of the relative biological effectiveness of tritium. Ottawa: Atomic Energy Control Board; INFO-0287; 1988.
17. Coggle JE. Lung tumour induction in mice after x rays and neutrons. Int J Radiat Biol 53:585-598; 1988.
18. Committee on Interagency Radiation Research and Policy Coordination (CIRRPC). Neutron quality factor. Washington, DC: Committee on Interagency Radiation Research and Policy Coordination; ORAU 95/F-29; 1995.
19. Coppola M. Specification of fast neutron radiation quality from cell transformation data. Radiat Prot Dosim 46:211-212; 1993.
20. Cox R, Masson WK. Mutation and activation of cultured mammalian cells exposed to beams of accelerated heavy ions. III. Human diploid fibroplasts. Int J Radiat Biol 36:149-160; 1979.
21. Cox R, Thacker J, Goodhead DT, Munson RJ. Mutation and inactivation of mammalian cells by various ionizing radiations. Nature 267:425-427; 1977.
22. Department of Health and Human Services. 40 CFR Part 81 - Guidelines for determining the probability of causation under the Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act of 2000; final rule. Fed Register 67:22296-22314; 2002.
23. Edwards AA. Relative biological effectiveness of neutrons for stochastic effects. Chilton, UK: National Radiological Protection Board; Doc NRPB 8(2); 1997.
24. Edwards AA. Neutron RBE values and their relationship to judgements in radiological protection. J Radiol Prot 19:93-105; 1999.
25. Edwards AA, Purrott RJ, Prosser JS, Lloyd DC. The induction of chromosome aberrations in human lymphocytes by alpha-radiation. Int J Radiat Biol 38:83-91; 1980.
26. Edwards AA, Lloyd DC, Prosser JS. The induction of chromosomal aberrations in human lymphocytes by accelerated charged particles. Radiat Prot Dosim 13:205-209; 1985.
27. Edwards AA, Lloyd DC, Prosser JS. The induction of chromosomal aberrations in human lymphocytes by 24 keV neutrons. Radiat Prot Dosim 31:265-268; 1990.
28. Fabry L, Leonard A, Wambersie A. Induction of chromosome aberrations in Go human lymphocytes by low doses of ionizing radiations of different quality. Radiat Res 103:122-134; 1985.
29. Field RW, Steck DJ, Smith BJ, Brus CP, Neuberger JS, Fisher EL, Platz CE, Robinson RA, Woolson RF, Lynch CF. Residential radon gas exposure and lung cancer: the Iowa radon lung cancer study. Am J Epidemiol 151:1091-1102; 2000.
30. Frankenberg D, Kelnhofer K, Baer K, Frankenberg-Schwager M. Enhanced neoplastic transformation by mammography x rays relative to 200 kVp x rays: Indication for a strong dependence on photon energy of RBEM for various end points. Radiat Res 157:99-105; 2002.
31. Frankenberg-Schwager M, Garg I, Frankenberg G, Greve B, Severin E, Uthe D, Goehde W. Mutagenicity of low-filtered 30 kVp x-rays, mammography x-rays and conventional x-rays in cultured mammalian cells. Int J Radiat Biol 78:781-789; 2002.
32. Gragtmans NJ, Myers DK, Johnson JR, Jones AR, Johnson LD. Occurrence of mammary tumors in rats after exposure to tritium beta rays and 200-kVp x rays. Radiat Res 99:636-650; 1984.
33. Grahn D, Lombard LS, Carnes BA. The comparative tumorigenic effect of fission neutrons and cobalt-60 gamma-rays in the B6CF1 mouse. Radiat Res 129:19-36; 1992.
34. Griffith WC, Boecker BB, Cuddihy RG, Guilmette RA, Hahn FF, McClellan RO, Muggenburg BA, Snipes MB. Preliminary radiation risk estimates of carcinoma incidence in the lung as a function of cumulative radiation dose using proportional tumor incidence rates. In: Inhalation Toxicology Research Institute annual report. Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service; LMF-120; 1987: 196; cited by NCRP (1990).
35. Griffith WC, Boecker BB, Gillett NA, Guilmette RA, Hahn FF, Muggenburg BA. Comparison of risk factors for bone cancer induced by inhaled 90SrCl2 and 238PuO2. In: Proceedings of EULEP/DOE joint bone radiobiology workshop. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy; UDC-472-136; 1991:13-16; cited by Muirhead et al. (1993).
36. Grogan HA, Sinclair WK, Voilleque PG. Assessing risks of exposure to plutonium. Part of Task 3: Independent analysis of exposure, dose and health risk to offsite individuals. Neeses, SC: Radiological Assessment Corporation; RAC Report No. 5-CDPHE-RFP-1998-FINAL; 1999.
37. Grogan HA, Sinclair WK, Voilleque PG. Assessing risks of exposure to plutonium. Part of Task 3: Independent analysis of exposure, dose and health risk to offsite individuals. Neeses, SC: Radiological Assessment Corporation; RAC Report No. 5-CDPHE-RFP-1998-FINAL(Rev. 2); Revision 2; 2000.
38. Grogan HA, Sinclair WK, Voilleque PG. Risks of fatal cancer from inhalation of 239,240plutonium by humans: a combined four-method approach with uncertainty evaluation. Health Phys 80:447-461; 2001.
39. Grogan HA, Sinclair WK, Voilleque PG. Risks of fatal cancer from inhalation of 239,240plutonium by humans: A combined four-method approach with uncertainty evaluation; erratum. Health Phys 82:404; 2002.
40. Hagmar L, Bonassi S, Stroemberg U, Brogger A, Knudsen LE, Norppa H, Reuterwall C. Chromosome aberrations in lymphocytes predict human cancer: A report from the European Study Group on Cytogenetic Biomarkers and Health (ESCH). Cancer Res 58:4117-4121; 1998.
41. Hahn FF, Griffith WC, Boecker BB, Muggenburg BA, Lundgren DL. Comparison of the effects of inhaled 239PuO2 and beta-emitting radionuclides on the incidence of lung carcinomas in laboratory animals. In: Proceedings of IRPA8: Worldwide achievement in public and occupational health protection against radiation. London: Pergamon Press; 1991; Vol. I; 916-919.
42. Hamby DM. Uncertainty of the tritium dose conversion factor. Health Phys 77:291-297; 1999.
43. Harrison JD, Khursheed A, Lambert BE. Uncertainties in dose coefficients for intakes of tritiated water and organically bound forms of tritium by members of the public. Radiat Prot Dosim 98:299-311; 2002.
44. Hei TK, Chen DJ, Hall EJ. Mutation induction by charged particles of defined LET. Carcinogenesis 9:1233-1236; 1988.
45. Heyes GJ, Mill AJ. The neoplastic transformation potential of mammography x rays and atomic bomb spectrum radiation. Radiat Res 162:120-127; 2004.
46. Hunacek MM, Kathren RL. Alpha radiation risk coefficients for liver cancer, bone sarcomas, and leukemia. Health Phys 68:41-49; 1995.
47. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. The quality factor in radiation protection. Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements; ICRU Report 40; 1986.
48. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Report of Committee II on permissible dose for internal radiation (1959). Oxford: Pergamon Press; ICRP Publication 2; 1960.
49. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Data for protection against ionizing radiation from external sources. Oxford: Pergamon Press; ICRP Publication 21; 1973.
50. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Oxford: Pergamon Press; ICRP Publication 26; Ann ICRP 1(3); 1977.
51. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Limits for intakes of radionuclides by workers. Oxford: Pergamon Press; ICRP Publication 30, Part 1; Ann ICRP 2(3/4); 1979.
52. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Biological effects of inhaled radionuclides. Oxford: Pergamon Press; ICRP Publication 31; Ann ICRP 4(1-2); 1980.
53. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Radionuclide transformations: energy and intensity of emissions. Oxford: Pergamon Press; ICRP Publication 38; Ann ICRP 11-13; 1983.
54. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Nonstochastic effects of ionizing radiation. Oxford: Pergamon Press; ICRP Publication 41; Ann ICRP 14(3); 1984.
55. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Statement from the 1985 Paris meeting of the ICRP. Ann ICRP 15(3); 1985:i-ii.
56. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Lung cancer risk from indoor exposures to radon daughters. Oxford: Pergamon Press; ICRP Publication 50; Ann ICRP 17(1); 1987.
57. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Age-dependent doses to members of the public from intake of radionuclides: Part 1. Oxford: Pergamon Press; ICRP Publication 56; Ann ICRP 20(2); 1989a.
58. International Commission on Radiological Protection. RBE for deterministic effects. Oxford: Pergamon Press; ICRP Publication 58; Ann ICRP 20(4); 1989b.
59. International Commission on Radiological Protection. 1990 recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Oxford: Pergamon Press; ICRP Publication 60; Ann ICRP 21(1-3); 1991.
60. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Protection against radon-222 at home and at work. Oxford: Pergamon Press; ICRP Publication 65; Ann ICRP 26(3/4); 1993.
61. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Conversion coefficients for use in radiological protection against external radiation. Oxford: Elsevier Science; ICRP Publication 74; Ann ICRP 74(3/4); 1996.
62. Kamiguchi M, Tateno H, Mikamo K. Dose-response relationship for the induction of structural chromosome aberrations in human spermatozoa after in vitro exposure to tritium beta-rays. Mutat Res 228:125-131; 1990.
63. Kashima M, Joshima H, Fukutsu K. Induction of micronuclei and some other abnormalities in mouse bone marrow following tritium exposure. In: Matsudaira H, Yamaguchi T, Etoh H, eds. Proceedings of the second workshop on tritium radiobiology and health physics. Chiba, Japan: National Institute of Radiological Sciences; NIRS-M-52; 1985: 246-257.
64. Kocher DC, Apostoaei AI, Hoffman FO. Radiation effectiveness factors (REFs) for use in calculating probability of causation of radiogenic cancers. Oak Ridge, TN: SENES Oak Ridge; 2002: 17 June. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ocas/pdfs/irep/irepref/pdf. Accessed 26 May 2004.
65. Land C, Gilbert E, Smith J, Hoffman FO, Apostoaei I, Thomas B, Kocher DC. Report of the NCI-CDC working group to revise the 1985 NIH radioepidemiological tables. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute; 2003.
66. Lee W, Chiacchierini RP, Shleien B, Telles NC. Thyroid tumors following 131I or localized x irradiation to the thyroid and pituitary glands in rats. Radiat Res 92:307-319; 1982.
67. Little JB. Induction of neoplastic transformation by low-dose-rate exposure to tritiated water. Radiat Res 107:225-233; 1986.
68. Littlefield LG, Joiner EE, Hubner KF. Cytogenetic techniques in biological dosimetry: overview and example of dose estimation in 10 persons exposed to gamma radiation in the 1984 Mexican 60Co accident. In: Mettler FA Jr, Kelsey CA, Ricks RC, eds. Medical management of radiation accidents. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1989; cited by NCRP (1990).
69. Lloyd DC, Purrott RJ, Dolphin GW, Bolton D, Edwards AA, Corp M. The relationship between chromosome aberrations and low-LET radiation dose to human lymphocytes. Int J Radiat Biol 28:75-90; 1975.
70. Lloyd DC, Edwards AA, Prosser JS. Chromosome aberrations induced in human lymphocytes by in vitro acute x and gamma radiation. Radiat Prot Dosim 15:83-88; 1986.
71. Lloyd DC, Edwards AA, Leonard A, Deknudt G, Natarajan A, Obe G, Palitti F, Tanzarella C, Tawn EJ. Frequencies of chromosome aberrations induced in human blood lymphocytes by low doses of x rays. Int J Radiat Biol 53:49-55; 1988.
72. Lubin JH, Boice JD Jr., Edling C, Hornung RW, Howe G, Kunz E, Kusiak RA, Morrison HI, Radford EP, Samet JM, Tirmarche M, Woodward A, Yao SX. Radon-exposed underground miners and inverse dose-rate (protraction enhancement) effects. Health Phys 69:494-500; 1995.
73. Mather SH, Otchin NS. Letter to Stremlow M and Royal HD, Veterans Advisory Committee on Environmental Hazards (VACEH). Washington, DC: Department of Veterans Affairs; 2004.
74. Matsuda Y, Yamada T, Tobari I. Chromosomal effects of tritium in mouse zygotes fertilized in vitro. In: Matsudaira H, Yamaguchi T, Etoh H, eds. Proceedings of the second workshop on tritium radiobiology and health physics. Chiba, Japan: National Institute of Radiological Sciences; NIRS-M-52; 1985: 193-206.
75. Mays CW, Finkel MP. RBE of alpha-particles vs. beta-particles in bone sarcoma induction. In: Proceedings of the 5th international congress of IRPA. Jerusalem: Israel Health Physics Society; Vol. II; 1980: 401-405.
76. Miller RC, Geard CR, Brenner DJ, Komatsu K, Marino SA, Hall EJ. Neutron-energy-dependent oncogenic transformation of C3H10T1/2 mouse cells. Radiat Res 117:114-127; 1989.
77. Miller RC, Marino SA, Napoli J, Shah H, Hall EJ, Geard CR, Brenner DJ. Oncogenic transformation in C3H10T1/2 cells by low-energy neutrons. Int J Radiat Biol 76:327-333; 2000.
78. Mole RH, Davids JAG. Induction of myeloid leukaemia and other tumours in mice by irradiation with fission neutrons. In: Neutron carcinogenesis. Luxembourg: Commission of the European Communities; 1982: 31-42.
79. Mole RH, Papworth DG, Corp MJ. The dose response for x-ray induction of myeloid leukaemia in male CBA/H mice. Br J Cancer 47:285-291; 1983.
80. Morimoto K, Ogawa Y, Okayama A, Shirakawa T, Miura K. Development of the monitoring system for human exposure to tritium: chromosome aberrations in human lymphocytes exposed to HTO. In: Okada S, ed. Tritium radiobiology and health physics. Proceedings of the third Japan-U.S. workshop. Nagoya, Japan: Institute of Physics, Nagoya University; IPPJ-REV-3; 1989: 137-142.
81. Muirhead CR, Cox R, Stather JW, MacGibbon BH, Edwards AA, Haylock RGE. Relative biological effectiveness. In: Estimates of late radiation risks to the UK population. Chilton, UK: National Radiological Protection Board; Doc NRPB 4(4); 1993: 126-139.
82. Myers DK, Johnson JR. RBE of tritium and induction of myeloid leukemia in CBA/H mice. Ottawa: Atomic Energy Control Board; INFO-0360; 1990.
83. Myers DK, Johnson JR. Toxicity and dosimetry of tritium: A review. Ottawa: Atomic Energy Control Board; 1991.
84. Nakamura N, Morikawa N, Okada S. Dose rate effects of mutation induction by tritiated water in mouse leukemia cells. In: Matsudaira H, Yamaguchi T, Etoh H, eds. Proceedings of the second workshop on tritium radiobiology and health physics. Chiba, Japan: National Institute of Radiological Sciences; NIRS-M-52; 1985: 95-100.
85. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Protection against neutron radiation. Bethesda, MD: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements; NCRP Report No. 38; 1971.
86. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Recommendations on limits for exposure to ionizing radiation. Bethesda, MD: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements; NCRP Report No. 91; 1987.
87. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. The relative biological effectiveness of radiations of different quality. Bethesda, MD: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements; NCRP Report No. 104; 1990.
88. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Conceptual basis for calculations of absorbed-dose distributions. Bethesda, MD: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements; NCRP Report No. 108; 1991.
89. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Limitation of exposure to ionizing radiation. Bethesda, MD: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements; NCRP Report No. 116; 1993.
90. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH-Interactive RadioEpidemiological Program (IREP) technical documentation; Final report. Cincinnati, OH: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; 2002. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ocas/pdfs/irep/irepfnl.pdf. Accessed 26 May 2004.
91. National Research Council. Health risks of radon and other internally deposited alpha-emitters. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; BEIR IV; 1988.
92. National Research Council. A review of the dose reconstruction program of the Defense Treat Reduction Agency. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2003.
93. Nomura T, Yamamoto O. In vivo somatic mutation in mice induced by tritiated water. In: Okada S, ed. Tritium radiobiology and health physics. Proceedings of the third Japan-U.S. workshop. Nagoya, Japan: Institute of Physics, Nagoya University; IPPJ-REV-3; 1989: 230-233.
94. Otchin NS. Letter to Al-Nabulsi I, National Academy of Sciences. Washington, DC: Department of Veterans Affairs; 17 September 2001 [see also National Research Council (2003), Appendix D: 333-334].
95. Pomerantseva MD. The genetic activity of various types of ionizing radiation. Radiobiologiya 4:13; 1964; cited by NCRP (1990).
96. Preston DL, Mattsson A, Holmberg E, Shore R, Hildreth NG, Boice JD Jr. Radiation effects on breast cancer risk: A pooled analysis of eight cohorts. Radiat Res 158:220-235; 2002.
97. Prosser JS, Lloyd DC, Edwards AA, Stather JW. The induction of chromosome aberrations in human lymphocytes by exposure to tritiated water in vitro. Radiat Protect Dosim 4:21-26; 1983.
98. Purrott RJ, Edwards AA, Lloyd DC, Stather JW. The induction of chromosome aberrations in human lymphocytes by in vitro irradiation with alpha-particles from plutonium-239. Int J Radiat Biol 38:277-284; 1980.
99. Ron E, Lubin JH, Shore RE, Mabuchi K, Modan B, Pottern LM, Schneider AB, Tucker MA, Boice JD Jr. Thyroid cancer after exposure to external radiation: A pooled analysis of seven studies. Radiat Res 141:259-277; 1995.
100. Satow Y, Lee J, Sawada S. Teratogenic effect of tritium water and tritium simulator on rat embryos. In: Okada S, ed. Tritium radiobiology and health physics. Proceedings of the third Japan-U.S. workshop. Nagoya, Japan: Institute of Physics, Nagoya University; IPPJ-REV-3; 1989: 280-286.
101. Schmid E. Is there reliable experimental evidence for a low-dose RBE of about 4 for mammography x rays relative to 200 kVp x rays? Radiat Res 158:778-781; 2002.
102. Schmid E, Regulla D, Guldbakke S, Schlegel D, Bauchinger M. The effectiveness of monoenergetic neutrons at 565 keV in producing dicentric chromosomes in human lymphocytes at low doses. Radiat Res 154:307-312; 2000.
103. Searle AG. Genetic effects of tritium in mammals. In: Proceedings of the European seminar on the risks from tritium exposure. Mol, Belgium: Commission of the European Communities; EUR 9056 EN; 1984: 303-310.
104. Searle AG, Beechey CV, Green D, Humphreys ER. Cytogenetic effects of protracted exposures to alpha particles from 239Pu and to gamma rays from 60Co compared in male mice. Mutat Res 41:297-310; 1976.
105. Sevan'kaev AV, Zherbin EA, Luchnik NV, Obaturov GM, Kozloo GM, Tayatte EG, Kapchigasher SP. Neutroninduced cytogenetic effects in lymphocytes of human peripheral blood in vitro. I. Dose dependence of the effects of neutrons of different energies on various types of chromosome aberrations. Genetika 15:1046-1060; 1979.
106. Shimizu Y, Kato H, Schull WJ. Studies of the mortality of a-bomb survivors: 9. Mortality, 1950-1985: Part 2. Cancer mortality based on the revised doses (DS86). Radiat Res 121:120-141; 1990.
107. Shleien B, Slayback LA Jr, Kirby BK. Handbook of health physics and radiological health. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins; 1998.
108. Sinclair WK. Experimental RBE values of high-LET radiations at low doses and the implications for quality factor assignment. Radiat Prot Dosim 13:319-326; 1985.
109. Stanton L, Day JL, Lightfoot DA, Villafana T, Rauch PL. Rapid computation of diagnostic x ray bremsstrahlung spectra. Radiol 130:477-484; 1979.
110. Storer JB, Ullrich RL. Life shortening in BALB/c mice following brief, protracted or fractionated exposures to neutrons. Radiat Res 96:335-347; 1983.
111. Storer JB, Serrano LJ, Darden EB Jr, Jernigan MC, Ullrich RL. Life shortening in RFM and BALB/c mice as a function of radiation quality, dose and dose rate. Radiat Res 78:122-161; 1979.
112. Stram DO, Sposto R, Preston D, Abrahamson S, Honda T, Awa AA. Stable chromosome aberrations among a-bomb survivors: an update. Radiat Res 136:29-36; 1993.
113. Straume T. High-energy gamma rays in Hiroshima and Nagasaki: implications for risk and wR. Health Phys 69:954-956; 1995.
114. Straume T, Carsten AL. Tritium radiobiology and relative biological effectiveness. Health Phys 65:657-672; 1993.
115. Suyama I, Etoh H. Chromosome effects of tritium on lymphocytes of the telost, Umbra Limi. In: Matsudaira H, Yamaguchi T, Etoh H, eds. Proceedings of the second workshop on tritium radiobiology and health physics. Chiba, Japan: National Institute of Radiological Sciences; NIRS-M-52; 1985: 146-156.
116. Suzuki F, Mori T, Nikaida O, Suzuki K, Watanabe M. Neoplastic transformation and chromosome aberration induced by tritiated water in golden hamster embryo cells. In: Okada S, ed. Tritium radiobiology and health physics. Proceedings of the third Japan-U.S. workshop. Nagoya, Japan: Institute of Physics, Nagoya University; IPPJ-REV-3; 1989: 211-216.
117. Thacker J, Stretch A, Stephens MA. Mutation and inactivation of cultured mammalian cells exposed to beams of accelerated heavy ions. II. Chinese hamster V79 cells. Int J Radiat Biol 36:137-148; 1979.
118. Thompson DE, Mabuchi K, Ron E, Soda M, Tokunaga M, Ochikubo S, Sugimoto S, Ikeda T, Terasaki M, Izumi S, Preston DL. Cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors. Part II: solid tumors, 1958-1987. Radiat Res 137:S17-S67; 1994.
119. Turner JE. Atoms, radiation, and radiation protection. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1995.
120. Ueno AM, Furuno-Fukushi I, Matsudaira H. Induction of cell killing, micronuclei and mutation to 6-thioguanine resistance after exposure to low dose-rate gamma rays and tritiated water in cultured mammalian cells (L5178Y). Radiat Res 91:447-456; 1982.
121. Ueno AM, Furuno-Fukushi I, Matsudaira H. Cell killing and mutation to 6-thioguanine resistance after exposure to tritiated amino acids and tritiated thymidine in cultured mammalian cells. In: Okada S, ed. Tritium radiobiology and health physics. Proceedings of the third Japan-U.S. workshop. Nagoya, Japan: Institute of Physics, Nagoya University; IPPJ-REV-3; 1989: 200-210.
122. Ullrich RL. Effects of split doses of x-rays or neutrons on lung tumor formation in RFM mice. Radiat Res 83:138-145; 1980.
123. Ullrich RL. Tumor induction in BALB/c mice after fractionated or protracted exposures to fission spectrum neutrons. Radiat Res 97:587-597; 1984.
124. Ullrich RL, Preston RJ. Myeloid leukemia in male RFM mice following irradiation with fission spectrum neutrons or gamma-rays. Radiat Res 109:165-170; 1987.
125. Ullrich RL, Jernigan MC, Cosgrove GE, Satterfield LC, Bowles ND, Storer JB. The influence of dose and dose rate on the incidence of neoplastic disease in RFM mice after neutron irradiation. Radiat Res 68:115-131; 1976.
126. Ullrich RL, Jernigan MC, Storer JB. Neutron carcinogenesis dose and dose-rate effects in BALB/c mice. Radiat Res 72:487-498; 1977.
127. Ullrich RL, Jernigan MC, Adams LM. Induction of lung tumors in RFM mice after localized exposures to x rays or neutrons. Radiat Res 80:464-473; 1979.
128. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Ionizing radiation: Sources and biological effects, report to the general assembly, with annexes. New York: United Nations; 1982.
129. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Epidemiological evaluations of radiationinduced cancer. In: Sources and effects of ionizing radiation. New York: United Nations; Vol. II; 2000: 298-450.
130. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Estimating radiogenic cancer risks. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; EPA 402-R-93-076; 1994.
131. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Estimating radiogenic cancer risks. Addendum: uncertainty analysis. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; EPA 402-R-99-003; 1999.
132. Upton AC, Randolph ML, Conklin JW. Late effects of fast neutrons and gamma-rays in mice as influenced by the dose rate of irradiation: Induction of neoplasia. Radiat Res 41:467-491; 1970.
133. Upton AC, Randolph ML, Conklin JW, Kastenbaum MA, Slater M, Melville GSJ, Conte FP, Sproul JA Jr. Late effects of fast neutrons and gamma rays in mice as influenced by the dose rate of irradiation: Life shortening. Radiat Res 32:493-509; 1967.
134. Vulpis N. The induction of chromosome aberrations in human lymphocytes by in vitro irradiation with beta particles from tritiated water. Radiat Res 97:511-518; 1984.
135. Wolf C, Lafuma J, Masse R, Morin M, Kelleher AM. Neutron RBE for induction of tumors of high lethality in Sprague-Dawley rats. Radiat Res 154:412-420; 2000.
136. Xiang-yan Z, Jin-chan D, Xin-sheng G, Lu-xin W. Tritium beta-ray and 60Co gamma-ray caused dominant lethal mutation in mice. Chinese Med J 99:420-423; 1986.
137. Yamada T, Yukawa O, Asami K, Nakazawa T. Effect of chronic HTO beta or 60Co gamma-radiation on preimplantation mouse development in vitro. Radiat Res 93:359-369; 1982.
138. Yamaguchi T, Yasukawa M, Terasima T, Matsudaira H. Malignant cell transformation induced by tritiated water in mouse 10T1/2 cells. In: Matsudaira H, Yamaguchi T, Etoh H, eds. Proceedings of the second workshop on tritium radiobiology and health physics. Chiba, Japan: National Institute of Radiological Sciences; NIRS-M-52; 1985: 136-145.
139. Yokoro K, Yamamoto O, Seyama T, Nitta Y, Niwa O. Carcinogenic effect of tritiated water (HTO) in mice in comparison with those of fission neutrons and gamma-rays. In: Okada S, ed. Tritium radiobiology and health physics. Proceedings of the third Japan-U.S. workshop. Nagoya, Japan: Institute of Physics, Nagoya University; IPPJ-REV-3; 1989: 233-238.