Rivers as legal structures: The examples of the Jordan and the Nile

Natural Resources Journal

Volumn 36, Issue 2 PART 1, 1996, Pages 217-250

  Dellapenna, Joseph W ^a  

^a VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 21444455463     PISSN: 00280739     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (372)

1. For twelve years, I have consulted on the Middle East Water Project, under the Direction of Dr. Thomas Naff, first at the Middle East Research Institute of the University of Pennsylvania and later with the Associates for Middle East Research, Inc. The project has already produced a single volume study, WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST: CONFLICT OR COOPERATION? (Thomas Naff & Ruth Matson eds., 1984). The project is now preparing a series of volumes on specific aspects of the water in the Middle East to be entitled WATER: THE MIDDLE EAST IMPERATIVE, publication having begun in 1990. I will contribute a volume to this series to be entitled MIDDLE EAST WATER: THE POTENTIAL AND LIMITS OF LAW (forthcoming in 1996) [hereinafter DELLAPENNA, MIDDLE EAST WATER]. I have also consulted with the Portuguese Directory-General of Natural Resources (Direcçao-Geral dos Recursos Naturais) as a Fulbright grantee in the summer of 1990.
2. See Joseph Dellapenna, Surface Water in the Iberian Peninsula: An Opportunity for Cooperation or a Source of Conflict?, 59 U. TENN. L. REV. 803 (1992) [hereinafter Dellapenna, Iberian Peninsula]. The analysis and conclusions in this paper are my own, and do not necessarily represent the views of the American or Portuguese governments or of the Associates for Middle East Research.
3. DANIEL HILLEL, THE STRUGGLE FOR WATER AND THE QUEST FOR PEACE IN THE MIDDLE EAST 42-45 (1994).
4. See also ARIE ISSAR, WATER SHALL FLOW FROM THE ROCK: HYDROGEOLOGY AND CLIMATE IN THE LANDS OF THE BIBLE (1990).
5. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 51-54.
6. See generally ROBERT ADAMS, LAND BEHIND BAGHDAD: A HISTORY OF SETTLEMENT ON THE DIYALA PLAINS (1965);
7. F.J. BERBER, RIVERS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 1-2 (R.K. Batstone trans., 1959);
8. KARL BUTZER, EARLY HYDRAULIC CIVILIZATION IN EGYPT (1976);
9. DANTE CAPONERA, PRINCIPLES OF WATER LAW AND ADMINISTRATION 11-25 (1992);
10. IRRIGATION'S IMPACT ON SOCIETY (T.E. Downing & McGuire Gibson eds., 1974);
11. LUDWIK TECLAFF, THE RIVER BASIN IN HISTORY AND LAW 15-25, 28-32, 42-47 (1967);
12. KARL WITTFOGEL, ORIENTAL DESPOTISM: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TOTAL POWER (1957);
13. Yahia Bakour & John Kolars, The Arab Mashrek: Hydrologic History, Problems and Perspectives, in WATER IN THE ARAB WORLD: PERSPECTIVES AND PROGNOSES 121, 123-27 (Peter Rogers & Peter Lydon eds., 1994);
14. Lon Fuller, Irrigation and Tyranny, 17 STAN. L. REV. 1021 (1965);
15. Vujica Yevjevich, Water and Civilization, 17 WATER INT'L 163 (1992).
16. PETER BEAUMONT ET AL., THE MIDDLE EAST: A GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY 362 (1988); HILLEL, supra note 2, at 51-58;
17. NURIT KLIOT, WATER RESOURCES AND CONFLICT IN THE MIDDLE EAST 117 (1994);
18. LUDWIK TECLAFF, WATER IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 1 (1985); Bakour & Kolars, supra note 4, at 126;
19. Terje Tvedt, The Struggle for Water in the Middle East, in SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN ARID COUNTRIES: MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA 13, 15, 18, 28 (Eric Schiller ed., 1992) [hereinafter SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES]. Salination was not a problem in Egypt before the completion of the High Dam at Aswan, for before then the annual floods not only deposited new soil but they also flushed salts from the soil. Bakour & Kolars, supra note 4, at 144 n.3.
20. Pamela LeRoy, Troubled Waters: Population and Water Scarcity, 6 COLO. J. INT'L ENVTL. L. & POL'Y 299 (1995).
21. Id. at 306-11; Miriam Lowi, Rivers of Conflict, Rivers of Peace, 49 J. INT'L AFF. 123, 124 (1995).
22. Ewan Anderson, White Oil, GEOGRAPHICAL MAG., Feb. 1991, at 10;
23. Richard Chesnoff, When Water Feeds Flames, U.S. NEWS & WORLD REP., Nov. 21, 1988, at 47;
24. John Cooley, Behind the News: The Hydraulic Imperative, 205 MIDDLE EAST INT'L 10 (July 22, 1983);
25. John Cooley, The War over Water, 54 FOR. AFF. 3 (1984);
26. Jeffrey Lee & John Bulloch, Spirit of War Moves on Mid-East Waters: Arab States Fear a Plot to Control Their Supplies of Water, THE INDEPENDENT, May 13, 1990, at 13;
27. Deborah Pugh, Egypt: Next War Could Be over Water Quotas from the Nile, THE GUARDIAN, Oct. 12, 1990, at 33;
28. Joyce Starr, Water Wars, 82 FOR. AFF. 17 (1991);
29. Thomas Stauffer, The Lure of the Litani, MIDDLE EAST INT'L (July 30, 1982);
30. Symposium, Water Politics, THE MIDDLE EAST, Spec. Rep. No. 76 at 47-54 (1981);
31. Christopher Walker, Seeds of Conflict Are Water-Borne in Parched Middle East, THE TIMES (London), Mar. 27, 1990, at 11;
32. Christopher Walker, Egypt Warns Sudan over New Threat to Cut Nile Waters, THE TIMES (London), July 4, 1995, at 11 [hereinafter Egypt Warns];
33. Aaron Wolf & John Ross, The Impact of Scarce Water Resources on the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 32 NAT. RESOURCES J. 919 (1992).
34. WORLD CLIMATE CHANGE: THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AND INSTITUTIONS (Ved Nanda ed., 1983);
35. F.A. Bazzaz, Global Climate Change and Its Consequences for Water Availability in the Arab World, in WATER IN THE ARAB WORLD, supra note 3, at 243;
36. Peter Glieck, Water Resources: A Long-Range Global Evaluation, 20 ECOL. L. Q. 141 (1993);
37. Gretta Goldenman, Adapting to Climate Change: A Study of International Rivers and Their Legal Arrangements, 17 ECOL. L.Q. 741 (1990);
38. Ernest Smerdon, Impact of Global Change on Water Resources, 9 ARIZ. J. INT'L & COMP. L. 155 (1992);
39. Ludwik Teclaff, The River Basin Concept and Global Climate Change, 8 PACE ENVTL. L. REV. 355 (1991).
40. Joseph Dellapenna, Designing the Legal Structures of Water Management Needed to Fulfill the Israeli-Palestinian Declaration of Principles, 7 PALESTINE Y.B. INT'L L. 63, 70-72 (1994)
41. [hereinafter Dellapenna, Designing Legal Structures];
42. Joseph Dellapenna, Treaties as Instruments for Managing Internationally-Shared Water Resources: Restricted Sovereignty vs. Community of Property, 26 CASE-W. RES. J. INT'L L. 27, 27-33 (1994) [hereinafter Dellapenna, Treaties];
43. Joseph Dellapenna, Water in the Jordan Valley: The Potential and Limits of Law, 5 PALESTINE Y.B. INT'L L. 15, 15-19 (1989) [hereinafter Dellapenna, Jordan Valley].
44. Israeli-Palestinian Liberation Organization Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, Sept. 13,1993, Annex III, § 1, reprinted in 32 INT'L LEGAL MAT'LS 1525 (1993),
45. in 4 EUR. J. INT'L L. 572 (1993) [hereinafter Declaration of Principles].
46. LEONARD RICE & MICHAEL WHITE, ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF WATER LAW 1-11 (1987); Lowi, supra note 7, at 124-25.
47. H.L.A. HART, THE CONCEPT OF LAW 77-96 (1961);
48. WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 157-60;
49. MARK JANIS, AN INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL LAW 45-46 (1988);
50. Yoram Dinstein, International Law as a Primitive Legal System, 19 INT'L L. & POLITICS 1 (1986).
51. I use the term "national community" to avoid taking a position on which of these contending groups is, or ought to be, a state. For a discussion of my usage, see Dellapenna, Designing Legal Structures, supra note 10, at 63-64.
52. Dellapenna, Jordan Valley, supra note 10, at 29-35.
53. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 165-66, 310 n.17; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 233-35; John Kolars, Water Resources of the Middle East, in SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES, supra note 4, at 113. The "National Water Carrier" is a system of pumps and pipes for diverting water from the Sea of Galilee and the plain of Nazareth in the north to the dryer southern parts of Israel. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 159-60, 162, 164-66, 200; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 212-16; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 23-25, 38-39, 43.
54. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 173, 310 n.17; SUBHI KAHHALEH, THE WATER PROBLEM IN ISRAEL AND ITS REPERCUSSIONS ON THE ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT 45-47 (1981); KLIOT, supra note 5, at 216-17; Kolars, supra note 15, at 109-10.
55. MERON BENVENISTI, 1986 REPORT: DEMOGRAPHIC, ECONOMIC, LEGAL, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE WEST BANK 20 (1986) [hereinafter 1986 REPORT]; Hillel, supra note 2, at 40, 204-06, 208; KAHHALEH, supra note 17, at 42-45; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 232-33, 246; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 27, 47-48;
56. Sharif Elmusa, Dividing Common Water Resources According to International Water Law: The Case of the Palestinian-Israeli Waters, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 223, 230-31 (1995); Kolars, supra note 16, at 113-14.
57. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 200-01; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 232-33; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 64; Kolars, supra note 16, at 113. Some of the coastal aquifer's natural recharge is from streams carrying runoff from the hills of the West Bank out to the sea, while today the coastal aquifer is artificially recharged with waters drawn from the Jordan River. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 201.
58. See KLIOT, supra note 4, at 232, 235, 240-41, 243; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 27, 47, 53.
59. SHOSHANA GABBAY, THE ENVIRONMENT IN ISRAEL 21-22 (1994); HILLEL, supra note 2, at 201-02; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 237. The overdraft produces the predictable problem of saline intrusion into the aquifer from the Mediterranean and from brackish aquifers. GABBAY, supra, at 23-27; HILLEL, supra note 2, at 201-02.
60. GABBAY, supra note 21, at 20, 22-23; HILLEL, supra note 2, at 165, 310 n.17; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 225-26, 238-39; TECLAFF, supra note 5, at 198-99, 204 (1985).
61. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 169; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 231; Hisham Arwatani, A Projection of the Demand for Water in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. 1992-2005, in WATER AND PEACE IN THE MIDDLE EAST 9, 15 (Jad Isaac & Hillel Shuval eds., 1994) [hereinafter WATER AND PEACE];
62. Manuel Schiffler, Sustainable Development of Water Resources in Jordan: Ecological and Economic Aspects in a Long-Term Perspective, in WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST: LEGAL, POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL IMPLICATIONS 239, 245-47 (J.A. Allan & Chibli Mallat eds., 1995).
63. KLIOT, supra note 5, at 230. See also HILLEL, supra note 2, at 169-70, 173-74; B. al-Kloub & T.T. al-Shemmeri, Sustainable Development of Water Resources and Possible Enhancement Technologies and Application of Water Supply in Jordan, 20 WATER INT'L 106 (1995). Some estimates of Jordanian usage are lower, but all agree on the deficit.
64. See George Joffé, The Issue of Water in the Middle East and North Africa, in RESOURCE POLITICS: FRESHWATER AND REGIONAL RELATIONS 65, 70 (Caroline Thomas & Darryl Hewlett eds., 1993); Kolars, supra note 16, at 114-15; Schiffler, supra note 23, at 239, 243;
65. Mohammad Shatanawi & Odeh al-Jayousi, Evaluating Market-Oriented Water Policies in Jordan: A Comparative Study, 20 WATER INT'L 88-92 (1995).
66. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 174, 191-92; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 226; Arie Issar, Fossil Water under the Deserts of the Middle East: A Safeguard against Strife, in WATER AND PEACE, supra note 23, at 351; Kolars, supra note 16, at 115;
67. Hilmi Salem, A Budget of the Surface and Underground Water in Northern Jordan, in WATER AND PEACE, supra, at 135; Schiffler, supra note 23, at 243, 250-51.
68. This is a general problem not unique to Jordan. See Earl F. Murphy, Geology and Hydrology, in 3 WATERS AND WATER RIGHTS § 18.03 (Robert Beck ed., 1991);
69. Maureen Cropper, A Note on the Extinction of Renewable Resources, 15 J. ENVTL. ECON. & MGT. 64 (1988);
70. Yacov Tsur, Uncertainty and Irreversibility in Groundwater Resource Management, 29 J. ENVTL. ECON. & MGT. 149 (1995).
71. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 175; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 230; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 51; Radwan al-Mubarak al-Weshah, Jordan's Water Resources: Technical Perspective, 17 WATER INT'L 124, 128 (1992); Schiffler, supra note 23, at 245-47.
72. Treaty of Peace, Oct. 26, 1994, Isr.-Jordan, art. 6(3) & Annex II,
73. reprinted in 34 INT'L LEG. MAT'LS 43 [hereinafter Peace Treaty].
74. See generally BARUCH KIMMERLING & JOEL MIGDAL, PALESTINIANS: THE MAKING OF A PEOPLE (1993);
75. DON PERETZ, PALESTINIANS, REFUGEES, AND THE MIDDLE EAST PEACE PROCESS (1993);
76. Yoav Tadmor, Comment, The Palestinian Refugees of 1948: The Right to Compensation and Return, 8 TEMPLE INT'L & COMP. L.J. 403 (1994).
77. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 203; DAVID KAHAN, AGRICULTURE AND WATER RESOURCES ON THE WEST BANK AND GAZA (1967-1987) 24 (1987); KLIOT, supra note 5, at 244; Ephraim Ahiram & Hanna Siniora, The Gaza Strip Water Problem - An Emergency Solution for the Palestinian Population, in WATER AND PEACE, supra note 23, at 261, 265; Elmusa, supra note 18, at 227-28;
78. D.R.C. Grey, The Development of the Water Resources of the Occupied Territories: Some Key Issues, in WATER AND PEACE, supra note 23, at 219, 223;
79. Isam Shawwa, Water Situation in the Gaza Strip, in WATER AND PEACE, supra note 23, at 251, 252.
80. KAHAN, supra note 29, at 24; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 244; Ahiram & Siniora, supra note 29, at 265; Grey, supra note 29, at 223.
81. MERON BENVENISTI ET AL., THE WEST BANK HANDBOOK: A POLITICAL LEXICON 223-25 (1986) [hereinafter HANDBOOK]; HILLEL, supra note 2, at 207-08; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 247; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 48-49; Elmusa, supra note 18, at 227.
82. FAWZI GHARAIBEH, THE ECONOMIES OF THE WEST BANK AND GAZA STRIP 63 (1985);
83. MIRIAM LOWI, WEST BANK WATER RESOURCES AND THE RESOLUTION OF CONFLICT IN THE MIDDLE EAST 41 (1992) (quoting an Israeli official as saying "If their demand is for drinking water, we must say yes. . . . We do say yes. But we are not going to stop irrigating our orchards so they can plant new ones.");
84. LESLIE SCHMIDA, KEYS TO CONTROL: ISRAEL'S PURSUIT OF ARAB WATER RESOURCES 23 (1982);
85. Report of the Secretary-General, Permanent Sovereignty over National Resources in the Occupied Palestinian and other Arab Territories, U.N. Doc. A/39/326, at 14 (1984);
86. Uri Davis et al., Israel_s Water Policies, 9 J. PALESTINE STUD. 19 (1980).
87. One should also note that even receipt of a permit to drill a well does not guarantee receipt of a permit to operate the well. Jeffrey Dillman, Water Rights in the Occupied Territories. 19 J. PALESTINE STUD. 46, 56 (1989). See also HILLEL, supra note 2, at 207-08. In contrast, the 100,000 Israeli settlers in the West Bank are allowed to consume about 40 MCM/year. On the discriminatory application of Israeli water policies in the West Bank, see 1986 REPORT, supra note 18, at 8-10, 20-22; MERON BENVENISTI, THE WEST BANK DATA PROJECT 12-15 (1984); HANDBOOK, supra note 31, at 1, 223-25; GHARAIBEH, supra, at 62-63; KAHAN, supra note 29, at 27-28;
88. DAVID OTT, PALESTINE IN PERSPECTIVE: POLITICS, HUMAN RIGHTS & THE WEST BANK 15-17 (1980);
89. Arwatani, supra note 23, at 15-16; Harold Dichter, Comment, The Legal Status of Israel's Water Policies in the Occupied Territories, 35 HARV. INT'L L.J. 565 (1994); Dillman, supra, at 52;
90. Jamal el-Hindi, Note, The West Bank Aquifer and Conventions Regarding Laws of Belligerent Occupation, 11 MICH. J. INT'L L. 1400 (1990);
91. Elmusa, supra note 18, at 227-28; Frederick Frey & Thomas Naff, Water: An Emerging Issue in the Middle East?, 482 ANNALS AM. ACAD. POLL SCI. 65, 69 (1985);
92. Aaron Wolf, Water for Peace in the Jordan River Watershed, 33 NAT. RESOURCES J. 797, 799 (1993);
93. Wolf & Ross, supra note 8, at 942-47; Hisham Zarour & Jad Isaac, Nature's Apportionment and the Open Market: A Promising Solution to the Arab-Israeli Water Conflict, 18 WATER INT'L 40, 44 (1993).
94. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 181, 184; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 224; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 70-73; Bakour & Kolars, supra note 4, at 121, 132-33; Kolars, supra note 16, at 115-16; Mamdouh Shahin, Review and Assessment of Water Resources in the Arab World, 14 WATER INT'L 206, 216 (1989).
95. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 186-87, 249-50; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 198-99; SAMIR SALIBA, THE JORDAN RIVER DISPUTE 17-18 (1968);
96. WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 4, at 32, 69-71;
97. Cooley, Hydraulic Imperative, supra note 8;
98. Cooley, The War over Water, supra note 8; Starr, supra note 8; Stauffer, supra note 8.
99. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 163, 184-86, 249; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 65-73; Kolars, supra note 16, at 109-11.
100. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 107, 189-90; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 138; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 119-20.
101. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 169, 310 n.18; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 212, 221-22; Bakour & Kolars, supra note 4, at 133-34.
102. FREDERIC HOF, GALILEE DIVIDED: THE ISRAEL-LEBANON FRONTIER, 1916-1984, at 36 (1985); KAHHALEH, supra note 17, at 30-33;
103. RAMI KHOURI, THE JORDAN VALLEY: LIFE AND SOCIETY BELOW SEA LEVEL 73-74 (1981);
104. KLIOT, supra note 5, at 204-08; LOWI, supra note 7, at 29-36; MOSHE SHEMESH, THE PALESTINIAN ENTITY, 1959-1974: ARAB POLITICS AND THE PLO 38 (1988);
105. GEORGIANA STEVENS, JORDAN RIVER PARTITION 63-80 (1965);
106. WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 43-44, 69-71;
107. Kathryn Doherty, Jordan Waters Conflict, 553 INT'L CONCILIATION 1, 30-35 (1965);
108. Moshe Inbar & Jacob Maos, Water Resource Planning in the Northern Jordan Valley, 9 WATER INT'L 18, 21-22, 50 (1984);
109. Lowi, supra note 7, at 128; Aleef Sabbagh, Conflict over Water in the Middle East: From a Security and Strategic Point of View, in WATER AND PEACE, supra note 23, at 505, 511-12.
110. See Agreement on Good Neigbourly Relations, Feb. 2, 1926, Fr.-U.K., art. 3, 56 L.N.T.S. 79; Boundary Agreement, Feb. 3, 1922, Fr.-U.K., 24 L.N.T.S. 164; Convention on Certain Points Connected to the Mandates of Syria, the Lebanon, Palestine, and Mesopotamia, Dec. 23, 1920, Fr.-U.K., 22 L.N.T.S. 353; Exchange of Notes Respecting the Boundary Line Between Syria and Palestine from the Mediterranean to El Hammé, Mar. 7, 1923, Fr.-U.K., 22 L.N.T.S. 363; Protocol Relative to the Settlement of the Frontier between Syria and the Jebel Druze and Trans-Jordan, Oct. 21, 1931, Fr.-U.K. See generally HILLEL, supra note 2, at 74-87; URI RA'AMON, THE FRONTIERS OF A NATION: A RE-EXAMINATION OF THE FORCES WHICH CREATED THE PALESTINE MANDATE AND DETERMINED ITS TERRITORIAL SHAPE (1955);
111. FREDERIC HOF, GALILEE DIVIDED: THE ISRAEL-LEBANON FRONTIER, 1916-1985, at 14 (1985).
112. Dante Caponera, Legal Aspects of Transboundary River Basins in the Middle East: The Al Asi (Orontes), the Jordan, and the Nile, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 629, 630, 632 (1995).
113. Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, Sept. 13, 1993, Isr.-PLO, Annex III(I), reprinted in 32 INT'L LEGAL MAT'LS 1525 (1993), and in 4 EUR. J. INT'L L. 572 (1993). For brief general examinations of the provisions of the Declaration of Principles in the context of international law, see Eyal Benvenisti, The Israeli-Palestinian Declaration of Principles: A Framework for Future Settlement, 4 EUR. J. INT'L L. 543 (1993);
114. Antonio Cassese, The Israel-PLO Agreement and Self-Determination, 4 EUR. J. INT'L L. 564 (1993);
115. Raja Shehadeh, Can the Declaration of Principles Bring about a "Just and Lasting Peace"?, 4 EUR. J. INT'L L. 555 (1993).
116. See Dellapenna, Designing Legal Structures, supra note 10, at 65-67.
117. Peace Treaty, supra note 27.
118. See Dellapenna, Designing Legal Structures, supra note 10, at 67-70.
119. J.L. BRIERLY, THE LAW OF NATIONS 60 (Sir Humphrey Waldock ed., 1963).
120. See generally ANTHONY D'AMATO, THE CONCEPT OF CUSTOM IN INTERNATIONAL LAW (1971);
121. IAN BROWNLIE, PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW 4-11 (1990);
122. HERSCH LAUTERPACHT, THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW BY THE INTERNATIONAL COURT 368-93 (1958);
123. RESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF FOREIGN RELATIONS LAW OF THE UNITED STATES § 102 (Louis Henkin, Andrew Lowenfeld, & Detlev Vagts reporters, 1987);
124. G.I. TUNKIN, THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 89-203 (William Butler trans., 1974);
125. J.H.W. VERZIJL, INTERNATIONAL LAW IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 31-47 (1968).
126. The classic description of this process is found in Myres McDougal & Norbert Schlei, The Hydrogen Bomb Test in Perspective: Lawful Measures for Security, 64 YALE L.J. 648 (1955).
127. See also CHARLES DE VISSHER, THEORY AND REALITY IN INTERNATIONAL LAW (1968).
128. That treaties to which a particular state is not a party might be evidence of a custom binding on that state. See BROWNLIE, supra note 45, at 11-14; MYRES MCDOUGAL ET AL., LAW AND PUBLIC ORDER IN SPACE 82, 115-19 (1963);
129. A.D. MCNAIR, THE LAW OF TREATIES 216-18 (1961);
130. JULIUS STONE, LEGAL CONTROLS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 135 (1954).
131. But see BERBER, supra note 4, at 128-37; CHARLES HYDE, 1 INTERNATIONAL LAW 12 (2d ed. 1945).
132. BROWNLIE, supra note 45, at 14-15, 30-31; Christopher Joyner, U.N. General Assembly Resolutions and International Law: Rethinking the Contemporary Dynamics of Norm-Creation, 11 CAL. W. INT'L L.J. 445 (1981);
133. Ignaz Seidl-Hohenveldern, International Economic "Soft-Law," 163 HAGUE RECUEIL DES COURS 165, 194-213 (1979).
134. BROWNLIE, supra note 45, at 19-24; LAUTERPACHT, supra note 45, at 1-25; SHABTAI ROSENNE, 2 THE LAW AND PRACTICE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COURT 611-13 (1965);
135. Michael Akehurst, The Hierarchy of Sources in International Law, 47 BRIT. Y.B. INT'L L. 273 (1975).
136. BROWNLIE, supra note 45, at 5.
137. See, e.g., Delimitation of the Continental Shelf Boundary (Libya v. Malta), 1985 I.C.J. 13, at 29-34; The Gulf of Maine (Can. v. U. S.), 1984 I.C.J. 246, at 294-95 (merits); Fisheries Jurisdiction (U.K. v. Ice.), 1973 I.C.J. 3, at 18; Advisory Opinion on the Status of Namibia, 1971 I.C.J. 16, at 47. See generally BROWNLIE, supra note 45, at 181, 201-02, 217, 232; Luke Lee, The Law of the Sea Convention and Third States, 77 AM. J. INT'L L. 541 (1983);
138. Ian Sinclair, The Impact of the Unratified Convention, in REALISM IN LAW-MAKING 211 (Adriaan Bos & Hugo Siblesz eds., 1986);
139. Louis Sohn, Unratified Treaties as a Source of Customary International Law, in REALISM IN LAW-MAKING, supra, at 231;
140. Prosper Weil, Toward a Relative Normativity in International Law?, 77 AM. J. INT_L L. 413, 435-38 (1983).
141. Statute of the International Court of Justice, art. 38(1)(d), 59 Stat. 1055, T.S. 993 (1945). See generally BROWNLIE, supra note 45, at 24-25; LAUTERPACHT, supra note 45, at 23-25.
142. WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 161. See also Richard Bilder, Some Limitations of Adjudication as an International Dispute Settlement Technique, 23 VA. J. INT'L L. 1 (1982);
143. Richard Falk, The Beirut Raid and the International Law of Retaliation, 63 AM. J. INT'L L. 415 (1969).
144. See Dellapenna, Designing Legal Structures, supra note 10, at 72-90; Dellapenna, Iberian Peninsula, supra note 1, at 814-22; Dellapenna, Jordan Valley, supra note 9, at 37-40; Albert Utton, International Streams and Lakes Generally, in 5 WATERS AND WATER RIGHTS 1-44 (Robert Beck ed., 1991);
145. William Van Alstyne, The Justiciability of International River Disputes: A Study in Case Method, DUKE L.J. 207 (1964).
146. See generally Int'l L. Comm'n, Draft Articles on the Law of Non-Navigational Use of International Watercourses, art. 4 [hereinafter Draft Articles], in REPORT OF THE 46TH MEETING OF THE INTERNATIONAL LAW COMMISSION, 2 MAY- 22 JULY, 1994, U.N. DOC. A/49/10, at 195 [hereinafter ILC REPORT]; BERBER, supra note 4;
147. BRIJ CHAUHAN, SETTLEMENT OF WATER LAW DISPUTES IN INTERNATIONAL DRAINAGE BASINS (1981);
148. GEORGE KAECKENBEECK, INTERNATIONAL RIVERS (1919);
149. REPORT OF THE U.N. COMMISSION FOR EUROPE, LEGAL ASPECTS OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENT OF RIVERS AND LAKES OF COMMON INTEREST, 95-152 U.N. Doc. E/ECE/136 (1952);
150. HERBERT SMITH, THE ECONOMIC USES OF INTERNATIONAL RIVERS (1931);
151. TECLAFF, supra note 5; Richard Bilder, International Law and Natural Resources Policies, 20 NAT. RESOURCES J. 452 (1980);
152. Jan Hostie, Problems of International Concerning Irrigation of Arid Lands, 31 INT'L AFFAIRS 61 (1955);
153. Stephen Schwebel, The Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, 1982 II Y.B. INT'L L. COMM'N 76-82, U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/348; Utton, supra note 54.
154. Draft Articles, supra note 55, art. 4.
155. WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 164-165. This theory has one of its best known expressions in a published opinion by U.S. Attorney General Harmon, 21 Op. Att'y Gen. 274, 281-282 (1898). The "Harmon Doctrine" has been disapproved by the U.S. State Department, Memorandum to the Legal Advisor, Nov. 23, 1942, reprinted in 3 MARJORIE WHITEMAN, DIGEST OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 950-954 (1964).
156. WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 165; A.P. Lester, River Pollution in International Law, 57 AM. J. INT'L L. 828, 832 (1963).
157. WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 165-166.
158. See, e.g., Agreement on the Full Utilization of the Nile Waters, Nov. 8, 1959, United Arab Republic-Sudan, 453 U.N.T.S. 51; Convention Concerning the Management of the Chute of the Doubs near Chatelot, Nov. 19, 1930, Fr.-Switz., UNITED NATIONS, LEGISLATIVE TEXTS AND TREATY PROVISIONS CONCERNING THE UTILIZATION OF INTERNATIONAL RIVERS FOR OTHER PURPOSES THAN NAVIGATION no. 199, U.N. Doc. ST/LEG/SER.B/12 (1964) [hereinafer LEGISLATIVE TEXTS]; Convention for the Development of the Water Power of the Rhône River, Oct. 4, 1913, Fr.-Switz., LEGISLATIVE TEXTS, supra, no. 197; Convention Providing for the Equitable Distribution of the Waters of the Rio Grande for Irrigation Purposes, May 21, 1906, Mex.-U.S., 34 Stat. 2953; Convention to Regulate the Hydro-Electric Development of the International Section of the River Duoro, Aug. 11, 1927, Spain-Port., 82 L.N.T.S. 133; Indus Waters Treaty, Sept. 19, 1960, India-Pak., 419 U.N.T.S. 126; Treaty Relating to the Uses of the Waters of the Niagara River, Feb. 27, 1950, U.S.-Can., 1 U.S.T. 694; Treaty Respecting Utilization of Waters of the Colorado and Tijuana Rivers and of the Rio Grande, Feb. 3, 1944, Mex.-U.S., 59 Stat. 1219. See also SALIBA, supra note 34, at 51-54, 57-59; TECLAFF, supra note 4, at 157-165; TECLAFF, supra note 5, at 429-43; Richard Baxter, The Indus Basin, in THE LAW OF INTERNATIONAL DRAINAGE BASINS 443 (Albert Garretson et al. eds., 1967) [hereinafter INTERNATIONAL DRAINAGE BASINS];
159. Aziza Fahmi, International River Law for Non-Navigable Rivers with Special Reference to the Nile, 23 REVUE ÉGYPTIENNE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 39 (1967);
160. Albert Garretson, The Nile Basin, in INTERNATIONAL DRAINAGE BASINS, supra, at 256;
161. Sayed Hosni, The Nile Regime, 17 REVUE ÉGYPTIENNE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 70 (1961);
162. Jerome Lipper, Equitable Utilization, in INTERNATIONAL DRAINAGE BASINS, supra, at 18, 49-57.
163. See generally Charles Meyers, The Colorado Basin, in INTERNATIONAL DRAINAGE BASINS, supra, at 486.
164. See, e.g., Agreement Concerning Frontier Rivers, Sept. 16, 1971, Fin.-Swed., art. 5, 825 U.N.T.S. 191; Agreement Concerning the Utilization of the Rapids of the Uruguay River, Dec. 30, 1946, Arg.-Uru., art. 1, 671 L.N.T.S. 26; Agreement Relating to Frontier Watercourses, July 12, 1922, Den.-Ger., art. 35, 10 L.N.T.S. 221; Boundary Treaty, Apr. 9, 1935, El Sal.-Guat., art. 2, 189 L.N.T.S. 295; Treaty Concerning the Hydroelectric Utilization of the Paranà River, Apr. 26, 1973, Braz.-Para., art. 13, 923 U.N.T.S. 95; Treaty of Friendship, Feb. 26, 1921, Persia-Russian S.F.S.R., art. 3, 9 L.N.T.S. 403; Treaty on Frontier Watercourses, Dec. 20, 1933, Braz.-Uru., art. 19, 181 L.N.T.S. 85. See generally Draft Articles, supra note 55, arts. 5-7.
165. JOHAN LAMMERS, POLLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL WATERCOURSES 18 (1984); TECLAFF, supra note 4;
166. Stephen McCaffrey, International Organizations and the Holistic Approach to Water Problems, 31 NAT. RESOURCES J. 139, 143 (1991);
167. Xue Hanqin, Relativity in International Water Law, 3 COLO. J. INT'L ENVTL. L. & POL'Y 45, 46-48 (1992).
168. See, e.g., BERBER, supra note 4; REPORT OF THE U.N. COMMISSION FOR EUROPE, supra note 55; H.A. SMITH, THE ECONOMIC USES OF INTERNATIONAL RIVERS (1931); Schwebel, supra note 55, at 76-82, 88-90; Utton, supra note 54, § 49.03(a).
169. See, e.g., The Territorial Jurisdiction of the Int'l Comm'n of the Oder River, 1929 P.C.I.J., (ser. A) No. 23, at 27; The Lake Lanoux Arbitration (Fr. v. Spain), 24 I.L.R. 101, 139 (1957), digested in 53 AM. J. INT'L L. 156, 170 (1959); The Zarumilla River Arbitration (Ecuador v. Braz.), INFORME DE LAS RELACIONES EXTERIORES A LA NACI - N 623 (1946), translated in William Griffin, The Use of Waters of International Drainage Basins under Customary International Law, 53 AM. J. INT'L L. 50, 61 (1959). See generally Utton, supra note 54, § 49.03(b).
170. See generally MAHMOUD ARSANJANI, INTERNATIONAL REGULATION OF INTERNAL RESOURCES (1981); BERBER, supra note 4, at 185-255; BRIERLY, supra note 45, at 231-32; BROWNLIE, supra note 45, at 271-76;
171. J. BRUHÀCS, THE LAW OF NON-NAVIGATIONAL USES OF INTERNATIONAL WATERCOURSES (1993); CAPONERA, supra note 5, at 189-90, 212-14;
172. NATHAN FEINBERG, STUDIES IN INTERNATIONAL LAW WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT 491-97 (1979);
173. BONAYA ADHI GODANA, AFRICA'S SHARED WATER RESOURCES: LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS OF THE NILE, NIGER, AND SENEGAL RIVER SYSTEMS 8, 50-57, 338-44 (1985);
174. INT'L L. ASSOC., THE HELSINKI RULES ON THE USES OF THE WATERS OF INTERNATIONAL RIVERS (Rep. of the 52d Conf., adopted at Helsinki, Aug. 20, 1966) [hereinafter HELSINKI RULES];
175. DANIEL O'CONNELL, INTERNATIONAL LAW 556-558 (2d ed. 1970);
176. LASSA OPPENHEIM, INTERNATIONAL LAW 313, 345-47, 474-476 (Hersch Lauterpacht ed., 8th ed. 1955); SMITH, supra note 55, at 148-51; TECLAFF, supra note 4, at 152; TECLAFF, supra note 5, at 424-56; 3 VERZIJL, supra note 45, at 103-220;
177. Dominique Alhéritière, Settlement of Public International Disputes on Shared Resources: Elements of a Comparative Study of International Instruments, in TRANSBOUNDARY RESOURCES LAW 139 (Albert Utton & Ludwik Teclaff eds., 1987);
178. Juraj Andrassy, L_utilisation des eaux des bassins fluviaux internationaux, 16 REVUE EGYPTIENNE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 23 (1960);
179. Eyal Benvenisti & Haim Gvirtzman, Harnessing International Law to Determine Israeli-Palestinian Water Rights: The Mountain Aquifer, 33 NAT. RESOURCES J. 543, 547-48 (1993);
180. Bilder, supra note 55; Fahmi, supra note 60; Goldenman, supra note 9; Hostie, supra note 55; F.L.E. Goldie, Equity and the International Management of Transboundary Resources, in TRANSBOUNDARY RESOURCES LAW, supra, at 103;
181. Günther Handl, The Principle of "Equitable Use" as Applied to International Shared Resources, 14 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 40, 47 (1978);
182. Eduardo Jiménez de Arechaga, Normas jur'dicas internacionales que regulan el aprovechamiento hidráulico, 2 REV. JUR'DICA INTERAMERICANA 320 (1960);
183. Lester, supra note 58; Ved Nanda, Emerging Trends in the Use of International Law and Institutions for the Management of International Water Resources, in WATER NEEDS FOR THE FUTURE 15 (Ved Nanda ed., 1977); Schwebel, supra note 55, at 85-90; Utton, supra note 54, § 49;
184. Patricia Wouters, Allocation of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses: Efforts at Codification and the Experience of Canada and the United States, 30 CAN. Y.B. INT'L L. 43, 45 (1992);
185. Sheng Yu, International Rivers and Lakes, in INTERNATIONAL LAW: ACHIEVEMENTS AND PROSPECTS 989, 990 (Mohammed Bedjaoui ed., 1991) [hereinafter ACHIEVEMENTS AND PROSPECTS].
186. On the structure and purposes of the International Law Commission, see THE WORK OF THE INTERNATIONAL LAW COMMISSION (4th ed. 1988);
187. IAN SINCLAIR, THE INTERNATIONAL LAW COMMISSION (1987).
188. Draft Articles, supra note 54. The law of international rivers has been on the agenda of the Commission since 1949, although work only began in earnest in 1971. SINCLAIR, supra note 66, at 27, 40. For a summary history of the Commission's work on international rivers, see Stephen McCaffrey, The International Law Commission Adopts Draft Articles on International Watercourses, 89 AM. J. INT'L L. 395 (1995);
189. James Westcoat, Jr., Beyond the River Basin: The Changing Geography of International Water Problems and International Watercourse Law, 3 COLO. J. INT'L ENVTL. L. & POL'Y 301 (1992).
190. Draft Articles, supra note 55, art. 5.
191. Int'l L. Comm'n, Draft Articles on the Law of Non-Navigational Use of International Watercourses, art. 7, U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/L.463/Add.4 (1991), reprinted in 3 COLO. J. INT'L ENVTL. L. 1, 3-4 (1992).
192. Other phrases are frequently substituted for "appreciable harm" in various formulations of this rule. Other phrases used have included "sensible harm," "significant harm," and "substantial harm." Schwebel, supra note 55, at 93; Utton, supra note 54, § 49.04, at 23-24.
193. See BRUHÀCS, supra note 65, at 142-43, 194-204, 217-20; CAPONERA, supra note 4, at 219-21, 223-25; ANDRÉ NOLLKAEMPER, THE LEGAL REGIME FOR TRANSBOUNDARY WATER POLLUTION: BETWEEN DISCRETION AND CONSTRAINT 61-69 (1993); HILLEL, supra note 2, at 273;
194. Charles Bourne, Principles and Planned Measures, 3 COLO. J. INT'L ENVTL. L. & POL'Y 65, 77-88 (1992);
195. Dellapenna, Treaties, supra note 10, at 38-42;
196. Stephen McCaffrey, The International Law Commission and Its Efforts to Codify the International Law of Waterways, 47 ANNUAIRE SUISSE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 32, 48-52 (1991);
197. Günther Handl, The International Law Commission's Draft Articles on the Law of International Watercourses (General Principles and Planned Measures): Progressive or Retrogressive Development of International Law?, 3 COLO. J. INT'L ENVTL. L. & POL'Y 123, 129-33 (1992);
198. Charles Odidi Okidi, "Preservation and Protection" under the 1991 ILC Draft Articles on the Law of International Watercourses, 3 COLO. J. INT'L ENVTL. L. & POL'Y 143 (1992);
199. Patricia Wouters, Allocation of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses: Efforts at Codification and the Experience of Canada and the United States, 30 CAN. Y.B. INT'L L. 43, 46-47 (1992); Utton, supra note 54, § 49.04.
200. Draft Articles, supra note 55, art. 7. See generally BRUHÀCS, supra note 65, at 217-20; McCaffrey, supra note 67, at 399 n.29.
201. See Schwebel, supra note 55, at 93-107; Utton, supra note 54, § 49.04, at 22-25.
202. Robert Rosenstock, The Forty-Ninth Session of the International Law Commission, 89 AM. J. INT'L L. 390, 392 (1995).
203. McCaffrey, supra note 67, at 399-401.
204. Id. at 400. See also Richard K. Paisley & Timothy McDaniels, International Water Law, Acceptable Pollution Risk and the Tatshenshini River, 35 NAT. RESOURCES J. 111, 121 (1995).
205. ILC REPORT, supra note 55, at 236.
206. McCaffrey, supra note 67, at 400-01.
207. Draft Articles, supra note 55, art. 2(b).
208. See generally INTERNATIONAL GROUNDWATER LAW (Ludwik Teclaff & Albert Utton eds., 1981); Julio Barberis, The Development of the International Law of Transboundary Groundwater, 31 NAT. RESOURCES J. 167 (1991);
209. Robert Hayton & Albert Utton, Transboundary Groundwaters: The Bellagio Draft Treaty, 29 NAT. RESOURCES J. 663 (1989);
210. International Law Association, International Rules on Groundwater, Report of the Sixty-Second Conference 21, 231-85 (1986);
211. Ann B. Rodgers & Albert Utton, The Ixtapa Draft Agreement Relating to the Use of Transboundary Groundwaters, in TRANSBOUNDARY RESOURCES LAW 151 (Albert Utton & Ludwik Teclaff eds. 1987);
212. Mary Keleher, Note, Mexican-United States Shared Groundwater: Can It Be Managed?, 1 GEO. INT'L ENVTL. L. REV. 113 (1988).
213. Hayton & Utton, supra note 80.
214. WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 167; Dellapenna, Jordan Valley, supra note 10, at 41.
215. OMAR GHOBASHY, THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE JORDAN RIVER 39-42 (1961).
216. ADAM GARFINKLE, ISRAEL AND JORDAN IN THE SHADOW OF WAR 38 (1992); SALIBA, supra note 34, at 23-25, 29-31, 75-81, 94-96, 142-143; Dellapenna, Jordan Valley, supra note 10, at 41.
217. WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 168.
218. Id. at 167-68, 173-74; Dellapenna, Jordan Valley, supra note 9, at 41.
219. SALIBA, supra note 34, at 144; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 43-44. The headwaters diversion plan contributed to the ensuing Six-Day War in 1967. Israel's occupation of the Golan Heights during that war blocked any possible diversion scheme.
220. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 306 n.12; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 123; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 92-95; Robert Hager, Note, The Euphrates Basin: In Search of a Legal Regime, 3 GEO. INT'L ENVTL. L. REV. 207, 216 (1990).
221. SALIBA, supra note 34, at 93-94, 99-101, 103-104, 107-112, 142-146; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 168; Dellapenna, Jordan Valley, supra note 10, at 41-42.
222. MICHAEL BRECHER, DECISIONS IN ISRAEL'S FOREIGN POLICY 197 (1974); STEVENS, supra note 38, at 21.
223. WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 23.
224. Dellapenna, Jordan Valley, supra note 10, at 42; Elmusa, supra note 18, at 234-35.
225. Declaration of Principles, supra note 11, Annex III, (Currency sign) 1.
226. Zarour & Isaac, supra note 32, at 46-51.
227. Based on this reality, some have claimed to see Israel as being driven by a "hydraulic imperative" to seize all neighboring lands that could provide additional sources of water. See supra 8.
228. GARFINKLE, supra note 84, at 34-35, 164; HILLEL, supra note 2, at 161; SUBHI KAHHALEH, THE WATER PROBLEM IN ISRAEL AND ITS REPERCUSSIONS ON THE ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT 23-28 (1981);
229. MIRIAM LOWI, THE POLITICS OF WATER: THE JORDAN AND THE RIPARIAN STATES 19-29 (1984); SALIBA, supra note 34, at 84-107; SCHMIDA, supra note 32, at 13-20; STEVENS, supra note 38, at 14-33, 43-46; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 39-42; Doherty, supra note 38, at 21-30;
230. Eric Johnston, Jordan River Valley Development, 29 DEP'T STATE BULL. 892 (1953);
231. Eric Johnston, Mission to the Middle East, 30 DEP'T STATE BULL. 283 (1954);
232. Eric Johnston, The Near East and the West, 30 DEP'T STATE BULL. 790 (1954);
233. Don Peretz, Development of the Jordan Valley Waters, 9 MIDDLE EAST J. 397 (1955);
234. Aleef Sabbagh, Conflict over Water in the Middle East: From a Security and Strategic Point of View, in WATER AND PEACE, supra note 23, at 505, 509-10;
235. Arnon Soffer, The Relevance of Johnston Plan to the Reality of 1993 and Beyond, in WATER AND PEACE, supra, note 23 at 107, 109-13;
236. David Wishart, The Breakdown of the Johnston Negotiations over the Jordan Waters, 26 MIDDLE EASTERN STUD. 536 (1990).
237. GARFINKLE, supra note 84, at 39, 79, 164-65; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 200-02; YOSI MELMAN & DAN RAVIV, BEHIND THE UPRISING: ISRAELIS, JORDANIANS, AND PALESTINIANS 76 (1989); LOWI, supra note 96, at 33-35; SALIBA, supra note 34, at 145-47; STEVENS, supra note 38, at 73-84; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 39-45, 168-69; Doherty, supra note 38, at 51-53; Soffer, supra note 96, at 112-13; Wishart, supra note 96; See generally Sohn, supra note 51.
238. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 161-62; Soffer, supra note 96, at 115-18.
239. Declaration of Principles, supra note 11, Annex III, § 1; Peace Treaty, supra note 27, art. 6(3), & Annex II.
240. Greg Shapland, Policy Options for Downstream States in the Middle East, in LEGAL, POLITICAL, AND COMMERCIAL IMPLICATIONS, supra note 23, at 301, 309; Van Alstyne, supra note 54; Utton, supra note 54, § 49.05;
241. See generally Richard Falk, International Jurisdiction: Horizontal and Vertical Conceptions of Legal Order, 32 TEMPLE L.Q. 295 (1959).
242. Draft Articles, supra note 55, art. 5.
243. See generally NORRIS HUNDLEY, DIVIDING OF THE WATERS (1966);
244. Scott Anderson, Note, Equitable Apportionment and the Supreme Court: What's So Equitable about Apportionment?, 7 HAMLINE L. REV. 405 (1984);
245. Douglas Grant, Interstate Water Allocation, in 4 WATERS AND WATER RIGHTS, supra note 54, chs. 43-48;
246. A. Dan Tarlock, The Law of Equitable Apportionment Revisited, Updated, and Restated, 56 COLO. L. REV. 381 (1985).
247. The few international litigations and arbitrations that have applied the rule of equitable utilization have all depended on a treaty or compromise expressing the principle as the rule of decision. See The Territorial Jurisdiction of the Inf'l Comm'n of the Oder River, supra note 64; The Lake Lanoux Arbitration, supra note 64; The Zarumilla River Arbitration, supra note 64. See also Utton, supra note 54, § 49.03(b).
248. BERBER, supra note 4; REPORT OF THE U.N. COMMISSION FOR EUROPE, LEGAL ASPECTS OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENT OF RIVERS AND LAKES OF COMMON INTEREST, 95-152 U.N. Doc. E/ECE/136 (1952); TREATIES CONCERNING THE NON-NAVIGATIONAL USES OF INTERNATIONAL WATERCOURSES - EUROPE (FAO Legislative Study no. 50, Stefano Burchi ed., 1993); SMITH, supra note 55; LEGISLATIVE TEXTS, supra note 60; Schwebel, supra note 54; Utton, supra note 54, § 49.03(a); Dellapenna, Treaties, supra note 10.
249. See Dellapenna, Treaties, supra note 10, at 42-47.
250. That is, the region stretching from Libya to Iran and from Turkey to Sudan.
251. See generally ROBERT COLLINS, THE WATERS OF THE NILE: HYDROPOLITICS AND THE JONGLEI CANAL, 1900-1988 (1990);
252. THE NILE: RESOURCE EVALUATION, RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, HYDROPOLITICS AND LEGAL ISSUES 193, 197-98 (P.P. Howell & J.A. Allan eds., 1990); TECLAFF, supra note 4, at 105-08, 112-15; TECLAFF, supra note 5, at 433-36;
253. JOHN WATERBURY, HYDROPOLITICS OF THE NILE VALLEY (1979); Garretson, supra note 60.
254. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 118, 120; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 15-16, 22, 29-30; WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 18; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 125, 127; Mahmoud abu-Zeid, Water Resources Assessment for Egypt, in SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN ARID COUNTRIES: MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA 173, 174-76 (Eric Schiller ed., 1992); Goldenman, supra note 9, at 750.
255. See generally H.E. HURST, THE NILE: A GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE RIVER AND THE UTILIZATION OF ITS WATERS 54-62 (1952); WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 25-32.
256. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 58-61, 111, 120-21; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 32; WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 25-31; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 141.
257. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 121; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 32; HELEN RIVLIN, THE AGRICULTURAL POLICY OF MOHAMMED ALI IN EGYPT (1961); WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 32-37; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 141-42. See also COLLINS, supra note 107, at 105.
258. COLLINS, supra note 107, at 108-11, 235, 238-41; HILLEL, supra note 2, at 121-31; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 32-49; WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 33-34, 40-42, 87-89, 94-153; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 145-50; Garretson, supra note 60, at 274-76.
259. LOIS AROIAN & RICHARD MITCHELL, THE MODERN MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA 120-22,185-93 (1984); COLLINS, supra note 107, at 26-65, 76-89; GODANA, supra note 65, at 101-08; WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 43-47.
260. Protocol Delimiting Spheres of Influence in East Africa, Apr. 15, 1891, Italy-U.K., art. 3, 83 BRIT. & FOR. STATE PAPERS 21;
261. Treaties Relative to the Frontiers Between the Sudan, Ethiopia, and Eritrea, May 15, 1902, Eth.-Italy-U.K., art. 3, Cmd. No. 1370 (T.S. No. 16 of 1902), 23 Hertslet, Comm. Treaties 344 [hereinafter Ethiopian Frontier Treaties];
262. Agreement Relating to the Boundaries of the Sudan, May 9, 1906, Congo Free State-U.K., I 1, B.T.S. No. 4, Cmd. 2920.
263. See generally R.K. Batstone, The Utilization of Nile Waters, 7 INT'L & COMP. L.Q. 523, 533-37 (1959); Fahmi, supra note 60, at 56-58; Garretson, supra note 60, at 277-78;
264. Sayed Hosni, The Nile Regime, 17 REVUE ÉGYPTIENNE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 70, 71-73 (1961);
265. Lisa Jacobs, Comment, Sharing the Gifts of the Nile: Establishment of a Legal Regime for Nile Waters Management, 7 TEMPLE INT'L & COMP. L.J. 95, 105-06 (1993);
266. C.O. Okidi, History of the Nile and Lake Victoria Drainage Basins through Treaties, in THE NILE, supra note 107, at 197-99.
267. See generally TECLAFF, supra note 5, at 428-29, 438-43, 458-61, 450-51 n.28 (describing the evolution of agreements relating to U.S.-Canadian waters and the Rhine); Dellapenna, Treaties, supra note 10, at 42-44;
268. Albert Utton, Canadian International Waters, in WATERS AND WATER RIGHTS, supra note 54, ch. 51;
269. George Radosevich, Implementation: Joint Institutional Management and Remedies in Domestic Tribunals (Articles 26-28, 30-32), 3 COLO. J. INT'L ENVTL. L. & POL'Y 261, 263-66 (1992) (describing the evolution of the Mekong Committee).
270. Protocol, supra note 114.
271. See General Convention Relating to the Development of Hydraulic Power Affecting More than One State, Dec. 9, 1923, art. 4, 36 L.N.T.S. 76;
272. General Convention Regulating Navigable Waterways of International Concern, Apr. 20, 1921, art. 10, 7 L.N.T.S. 35.
273. COLLINS, supra note 107, at 36-39, 111-12, 115-21, 147-51, 158-60; ARTHUR GAITSKELL, GEZIRA (1959); WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 41, 45, 180-81, 185-86, 195-97; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 142-44; Garretson, supra note 60, at 266-70, 278-84; Hosni, supra note 114, at 73-80.
274. W.A. WILCOCKS, THE NILE PROJECTS (1920). See also KLIOT, supra note 5, at 81-82; SMITH, supra note 55, at 77; TECLAFF, supra note 5, at 434; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 144; Garretson, supra note 60, at 270-71, 279-83; Hosni, supra note 114, at 79.
275. BERBER, supra note 4, at 95-96; COLLINS, supra note 107, at 148, 152; EMPIRE ON THE NILE: ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN, 1898-1945, at 306-07 (M.W. Daly ed. 1986); GODANA, supra note 65, at 115-17; TECLAFF, supra note 5, at 434; WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 47-48, 64-67; Batstone, swpra note 114, at 528-29; Garretson, supra note 60, at 282; Okidi, supra note 107, at 201. See also COLLINS, supra note 107, at 118-56.
276. Exchange of Notes Regarding the Use of the Waters of the Nile for Irrigation, May 7, 1929, Egypt-U.K., 93 L.N.T.S. 43. See BERBER, supra note 4, at 96; COLLINS, supra note 107, at 153-58, 161-62, 209-10; GODANA, supra note 65, at 103-08, 143-44, 169-71; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 36-38, 87-89; SMITH, supra note 55, at 70; TECLAFF, supra note 5, at 434; TECLAFF, supra note 4, at 160-61; WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 43-67; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 143-44; Batstone, supra note 114, at 523-33; Fahmi, supra note 60, at 58-60; Garretson, supra note 60, at 264-74, 276, 282-87; Hosni, supra note 114, at 80-87; Okidi, supra note 114, at 200-02.
277. See generally ABD EL-FATTAH SAYED BADOUR, SUDANESE-EGYPTIAN RELATIONS (1960) .
278. COLLINS, supra note 107, at 238, 240, 250-55, 264-65; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 87; TECLAFF, supra note 5, at 434-35; WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 48-55, 67-77, 186; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 142, 145-46; Batstone, supra note 114, at 537, 547-50; Garretson, supra note 60, at 286-92; Hosni, supra note 114, at 91.
279. Agreement on the Full Utilization of the Nile Waters, Nov. 8, 1959, United Arab Republic-Sudan, 453 U.N.T.S. 51.
280. Id. art. 2, §§ 1, 2.
281. Id. art. 1.
282. Id. art. 2, § 4.
283. Id. art. 3.
284. Id. art. 5. Since then, the two states have taken further steps to integrate their economies and have made occasional gestures towards integrating their governments, but without much success in either regard. COLLINS, supra note 107, at 307, 309-10, 318-21, 387, 391; WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 75-83; Walker, Egypt Warns, supra note 8.
285. See generally TECLAFF, supra note 5, at 429-33; Dellapenna, Treaties, supra note 10, at 44-46; Albert Utton, Mexican International Waters, in WATERS AND WATER RIGHTS, supra note 54, ch. 50. States sometimes couple the agreement to allocate the water with a requirement that works potentially interfering with the rights of the other state not be undertaken without the consent of that other state.
286. WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 118-19, 151-53, 213-31; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 149, 154-55; Abu-Zeid, supra note 108, at 174; The Nile: A Grasping Serpent, THE ECONOMIST, Feb. 27, 1988, at 74.
287. WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 210. See generally Id. at 231-41; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 153; Abdin Salih, The Nile Inside the Sudan - Increasing Demands and Their Consequences, 10 WATER INT'L 73 (1985);
288. Bret Wallach, Irrigation in Sudan Since Independence, 78 GEOGRAPHICAL REV. 417 (1988).
289. H.E. HURST, THE LAKE BASIN OF THE NILE 9 (1925); HURST, supra note 109, at 156; WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 14-17, 23-24; Okidi, supra note 114, at 216-19. The continuing civil disorder in the south of the Sudan has prevented implementation even of projects designed with the hope of producing significant water out of the Sudd. MOHAMMED BESHIR, THE JONGLEI CANAL AND THE UPPER NILE SWAMPS (1985); COLLINS, supra note 107, at 101, 126-29, 164-246, 274-75, 292-300, 310-405; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 36-37, 56, 71, 88; WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 75-78, 200-06; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 137-39, 151, 153-54. These realities have not prevented Egypt from attempting to control what development goes on in the states uppermost on the White Nile. COLLINS, supra note 107 at 274-76, 286; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 86; Garretson, supra note 60, at 286; Hosni, supra note 114, at 87-89.
290. COLLINS, supra note 107, at 18-25, 27, 277; GODANA, supra note 65, at 80; HILLEL, supra note 2, at 58-59, 116-19; HURST, supra note 109, at 33-62; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 25-29; WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 17-19, 23-29; Abu-Zeid, supra note 108, at 176; Gamal Moursi Badr, The Nile Waters Question: Background and Recent Developments, 15 REVUE ÉGYPTIENNE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 1, 2 (1959). The Atbara fluctuates more severely than the Blue Nile, and is actually virtually dry for six months of the year. COLLINS, supra note 107, at 23-24; HILLEL, supra note 2, at 118; Garretson, supra note 60, at 259.
291. See, e.g., Assem Abdul Mohsen, Egypt, Ethiopia Clash over the Nile, THE MIDDLE EAST, Sept. 1980, at 70.
292. The Atbara is virtually dry for six months of the year. COLLINS, supra note 107, at 23-24; HILLEL, supra note 2, at 118; Garretson, supra note 107, at 259; D.G. Knott & R.M.G. Hewitt, Water Resources Planning in the Sudan, in THE NILE, supra note 107, at 93, 96;
293. J.V. Sutcliffe & J.B.C. Lazenby, Hydrological Data Requirement for Planning Nile Management, in THE NILE, supra note 107, at 107, 121.
294. Ethiopian Frontier Treaties, supra note 114, art. 3. See generally Batstone, supra note 114, at 551-55; Garretson, supra note 60, at 291-92; Hosni, supra note 114, at 89-91; Okidi, supra note 114, at 197-98.
295. WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 75; 3 MARJORIE WHITEMAN, DIGEST OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 1011-12 (1964); Okidi, supra note 114, at 197-98. See also COLLINS, supra note 107, at 268, 277-83; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 67; WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 147; Yimer Fisseha, State Succession and the Legal Status of International Rivers, in THE LEGAL REGIME OF INTERNATIONAL RIVERS AND LAKES 177 (Ralph Zacklin & Lucius Caflisch eds. 1981); Garretson, supra note 107, at 290-92.
296. Draft Articles, supra note 55, art. 7; see COLLINS, supra note 107, at 281; GODANA, supra note 65, at 32-35.
297. WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 68; Batstone, supra note 114, at 540; Okidi, supra note 108, at 201-02; Mohammed Abdel Hady Rady, Satisfying National and International Water Demands, 20 WATER INT'L 9, 10 (1995); Shapland, supra note 96, at 307.
298. See supra notes 70-80, and accompanying text.
299. Batstone, supra note 114, at 555-58; see also Okidi, supra note 114, at 219-20.
300. Egypt: Ethiopia Calms Fears on Nile Dams, MIDDLE EAST ECON. DIGEST, Feb. 9, 1990, at 15;
301. Sudan: Call for Ethiopia to Consult Khartoum about Plans to Build Blue Nile Dams, MIDDLE EAST ECON. DIGEST, Feb. 9, 1990, at 29;
302. John Waterbury, Transboundary Water and the Challenge of International Cooperation in the Middle East, in WATER IN THE ARAB WORLD, supra note 4, at 39, 52. For Article 5 of the Nile Agreement, see supra note 68.
303. See supra note 4 for authorities already cited.
304. See supra note 8 for authorities already cited.
305. Dellapenna, Designing Legal Structures, supra note 10, at 70-72 (1994);
306. Dellapenna, Treaties, supra note 10, at 27-33;
307. Dellapenna, Jordan Valley, supra note 10, at 15-19.
308. See generally TECLAFF, supra note 4, at 113-203; Dellapenna, Jordan Valley, supra note 10, at 40-45.
309. See Dellapenna, Designing Legal Structures, supra note 10;
310. Dellapenna, Jordan Valley, supra note 10.
311. See also DELLAPENNA, MIDDLE EAST WATER, supra note 1, ch. 5 (forthcoming).
312. See Alberto Székely, "General Principles" and "Planned Measures" Provisions in the International Law Commission's Draft Articles on the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses: A Mexican Point of View, 3 COLO. J. INT'L ENVTL. L. & POL'Y 93 (1992).
313. Dellapenna, Iberian Peninsula, supra note 1.
314. See supra note 38 for authorities already cited.
315. BRUHÀCS, supra note 65, at 132-43; Bourne, supra note 71, at 92; Garretson, supra note 60, at 264-65; Northcut Ely & Abel Wolman, Administration, in INTERNATIONAL DRAINAGE BASINS, supra note 10, at 59, 124, 124-25;
316. Terje Tvedt, The Struggle for Water in the Middle East, in SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES, supra note 108, at 13, 28-29. Sci also Westcoat, supra note 67.
317. Albert Garretson termed the Nile "the archetype of the usual historical pattern of international river basin development." Garretson, supra note 60, at 264-65. See also Samir Ahmed, Principles and Precedents in International Law Governing the Sharing of Nile Waters, in THE NILE, supra note 107, at 225-29.
318. Wouters, supra note 65, at 82. See also LAMMERS, supra note 62, at 364; Sanford Gaines, Taking Responsibility for Transboundary Environmental Effects, 14 HASTINGS INT'L & COMP. L. REV. 781, 798 (1991).
319. See supra note 8 for authorities already cited.
320. KLIOT, supra note 5, at 73-76.
321. Id. at 75; WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 176-77.
322. See Robert Collins, Historical View of the Development of Nile Water, in THE NILE, supra note 107, at 153, 162-65.
323. KLIOT, supra note 5, at 75; see also HILLEL, supra note 2, at 135-36.
324. According to the World Bank, Ethiopia has total wealth of only $1,400 per capita compared to $704,000 per capita for Canada (ranked first), $565,000 per capita for Japan (ranked fifth) or $421,000 per capita for the United States (ranked twelfth). Peter Passell, The Wealth of Nations: A "Greener" Approach Turns List Upside Down, N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 19, 1995, at C1 (the title refers to dropping Japan and the United States out of the top two spots; not to the ranking of Ethiopia last).
325. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 38, 140; Goldenman, supra note 9, at 751; Jacobs, supra note 114, at 96; Pugh, supra note 8; Walker, supra note 8.
326. COLLINS, supra note 107, at 159; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 67-69; Scott Smith & Hussam al-Rawahy, The Blue Nile: Potential for Conflict and Alternatives for Meeting Future Demands, 15 WATER INT'L 217, 218 (1990).
327. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 142; Alan Cowell, Now, a Little Stream, Later, Maybe a Water War, N. Y. TIMES, Feb. 2, 1990, at A11;
328. Jacobs, supra note 114, at 119. On World Bank lending policies that play into the Egyptian position, see Raj Krishna, International Watercourses: World Bank Experience and Policy, in WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 14, at 29;
329. see also Dellapenna, Treaties, supra note 5, at 54; Shapland, supra note 100, at 309-11. Some 35 years earlier, the legal dispute between Egypt and Sudan over the waters of the Nile blocked World Bank (and western) funding of the high dam at Aswan and helped drive President Nasser into his alliance with the U.S.S.R. HILLEL, supra note 2, at 125;
330. TOM LITTLE, HIGH DAM AT ASWAN 28-35 (1965); WATERBURY, supra note 107, at 67-68, 101-09; Batstone, supra note 114, at 525.
331. See supra notes 136-40, and accompanying text.
332. Personal communication from an officer of the World Bank who does not wish to be named. At least some Egyptians have long accepted that they would have to acquiesce in at least some Ethiopian withdrawals from the Blue Nile and Atbara. See Mamdouh Shahin, Response to Jovanovich, 11 WATER INT'L 317 (1986).
333. BADOUR, supra note 121, at 212-13; BERBER, supra note 4, at 94-95; COLLINS, supra note 107, at 123, 154-57, 265; GODANA, supra note 65, at 143-44, 169-71; KLIOT, supra note 5, at 51, 86; Ahmed, supra note 152, at 229; Awad El Morr, Water Resources in the Middle East: Some Guiding Principles, in WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 23, at 293, 297-98; Fahmi, supra note 60, at 51-54; Garretson, supra note 60, at 268-69; Hosni, supra note 114, at 81-82; Shapland, supra note 100, at 307; see also Exchange of Notes, supra note 121.
334. Draft Articles, supra note 55, art. 6(1)(d) (requiring consideration of "existing and potential uses of the watercourse"); see also Helsinki Rules, supra note 64, art. V(d); GODANA, supra note 64, at 62; Batstone, supra note 107, at 529; Benvenisti & Gvirtzman, supra note 65, at 548-49; D.M.M. Goldie, Effect of Existing Uses on Equitable Apportionment of International Rivers: A Canadian View, 1 U.B.C. L. REV. 399 (1959);
335. R.W. Johnson, Effect of Existing Uses on the Equitable Apportionment of International Rivers: An American View, 1 U.B.C. L. REV. 389 (1959).
336. BRUHACS, supra note 65, at 132-40; SALIBA, supra note 34, at 70; SMITH, supra note 55, at 40, 146; Bourne, supra note 71, at 233, 257; Garretson, supra note 60, at 287-89; Tiyanjana Maluwa, Towards an Internationalisation of the Zambezi River Regime: The Role of International Law in the Common Management of an International Watercourse, 25 COMP. & INT'L L.J. S. AFR. 20, 30-33 (1992);
337. Hillel Shuval, Approaches to Resolving Water Conflicts between Israel and Her Neighbors - A Regional Water-for-Peace Plan, 17 WATER INT'L 133, 136-38, 141-42 (1992); Wouters, supra note 65, at 82. For a contrary view, see Fahmi, supra note 60, at 51-54.
338. See G.A. Res. 41/128 (Dec. 4, 1986; vote: 146-1) (Declaration on the Right to Development); sec also G.A. Res. 3281 (XXIX), U.N. Doc. A/9631 (1974) (Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States); G.A. Res. 3202 (S-VI), U.N. Doc. A/9559 (1973) (Programme of Action on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order); G.A. Res. 3201 (S-VI), U.N. Doc. A/9559 (1973) (Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order); G.A. Res. 2626 (XXV), Oct. 24, 1970 (Declaration of U.N. Development Decades); G.A. Res. 2552 (XXIV) (1969) (Declaration on Social Progress and Development); HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPMENT: INTERNATIONAL VIEWS (David Forsythe ed., 1989); THE RIGHT TO DEVELOPMENT AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL (René Dupuy ed., 1980); U.N. SECRETARIAT, THE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF THE RIGHT TO DEVELOPMENT AS A HUMAN RIGHT, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1334 (1979); U.N. SECRETARIAT, REGIONAL AND NATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF THE RIGHT TO DEVELOPMENT AS A HUMAN RIGHT, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1421 (1980); Mohammed Bedjaoui, The Right to Development and the Jus Cogens, 2 LESOTHO L. REV. No. 2, at 93 (1986);
339. Mohammed Bedjaoui, The Right to Development, in ACHIEVEMENTS AND PROSPECTS, supra note 65, at 1177;
340. Mohamed Bennouna, International Law and Development, in ACHIEVEMENTS AND PROSPECTS, supra, at 619;
341. Paul Brietzke, Consorting with the Chameleon, or Realizing the Right to Development, 15 CAL. W. INT'L L. REV. 560 (1985);
342. Richard Desgagné, Integrating Environmental Values into the European Convention on Human Rights, 89 AM. J. INT'L L. 263 (1995);
343. Jack Donnelly, In Search of the Unicorn: The Jurisprudence and Politics of the Right to Development, 15 CAL. W. INT'L L. REV. 473 (1985);
344. Rhoda Howard, Women's Rights and the Right to Development, in WOMEN'S RIGHTS, HUMAN RIGHTS: INTERNATIONAL FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES 301 (Julie Peters & Andrea Wolper eds., 1995);
345. R.N. Kiwanka, Developing Rights: The U.N. Declaration on the Right to Development, NETHERLANDS INT'L L. REV. 257 (1988);
346. Kéba M_Baye, Le Droit au Developpement Comme un Droit de l'Homme, 5 REVUE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME 505 (1972);
347. Daniel Barstow Magraw, International Pollution, Economic Development, and Human Rights, in INTERNATIONAL LAW AND POLLUTION 30 (Daniel Barstow Magraw ed. 1991).
348. KLIOT, supra note 5, at 77-78.
349. See supra notes 23-32, and accompanying text.
350. Draft Articles, supra note 55.
351. See notes 75-76, supra and accompanying text.
352. Stephen McCaffrey, A Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications, 3 GEO. INT'L ENVTL. L. REV. 1 (1992);
353. see also SMITH, supra note 55, at 96; Charles Bourne, The Right to Utilize the Waters of International Rivers, 3 CAN. Y.B. INT'L L. 184, 192-95 (1965).
354. See generally Report of the United Nations Water Conference, Mar del Plata, Argentina, U.N. Pub. E/77/II/A/12 (1977), at 53; GLOBAL WATER RESOURCE ISSUES (Gordon Young, James Dooge, & John Rodda eds., 1994); TECLAFF, supra note 5, at 427-28; Goldie, supra note 65, at 103-137; Utton, supra note 54, §§ 49.03, 49.09.
355. See supra note 12 for authorities already cited.
356. See Marla Radinsky, Retaliation: The Genesis of a Law and the Evolution toward International Cooperation: An Application of Game Theory to Modern International Conflicts, 2 GEO. MASON U. L. REV. 52 (1994).
357. See generally ROBERT AXELROD, THE EVOLUTION OF COOPERATION (1984);
358. ROBERT ELLICKSON, ORDER WITHOUT LAW: HOW NEIGHBORS SETTLE DISPUTES (1991);
359. ROGER FISHER & SCOTT BROWN, GETTING TOGETHER 197-202 (1988);
360. Jonathan Bendor, Uncertainty and the Evolution of Cooperation, 37 J. CONFLICT RESOLUTION 709 (1993);
361. Lewis Kornhauser, Are There Cracks in the Foundation of Spontaneous Order?, 67 N.Y.U. L. REV. 647 (1992)
362. (reviewing ROBERT ELLICKSON, ORDER WITHOUT LAW: HOW NEIGHBORS SETTLE DISPUTES (1991));
363. David LeMarquand, Politics of International River Basin Cooperation and Management, in WATER IN A DEVELOPING WORLD: THE MANAGEMENT OF A CRITICAL RESOURCE 147 (Albert Utton & Ludwik Teclaff eds., 1978);
364. Oran Young, The Politics of International Regime Formation: Managing Natural Resources and the Environment, 43 INT'L ORG. 349 (1989).
365. WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST, supra note 1, at 161.
366. Cf. WILLIAM MARK HABEEB, POWER AND TACTICS IN INTERNATIONAL NEGOTIATIONS: HOW WEAK NATIONS BARGAIN WITH STRONG NATIONS (1988).
367. See, e.g., Brian Concannon, Note, The Indus Waters Treaty: Three Decades of Success, Yet, Will It Endure?, 1 GEO. INT'L ENVTL. L. REV. 55, 59 (1989);
368. M.Y. Khan, Boundary Water Conflict between India and Pakistan, 15 WATER INT'L 195 (1990);
369. Robin Leichenko, Climate Change and Water Resource Availability: An Impact Assessment from Bombay and Madras, India, 18 WATER INT'L 147 (1993); see supra note 9 for authorities already cited.
370. See Dellapenna, Designing Legal Structures, supra note 10;
371. Dellapenna, Treaties, supra note 10; see also HILLEL, supra note 2, at 175-76; SALIBA, supra note 34, at 113-152; Lowi, supra note 7, at 130-34.
372. See generally TECLAFF, supra note 5, at 443-48; Dellapenna, Treaties, supra note 10, at 46-47, 51-55.