The development of altruism: Toward an integrative model

Developmental Review

Volumn 14, Issue 2, 1994, Pages 103-158

  Krebs, Dennis L ^a   Van Hesteren, Frank ^b  

^a SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SASKATCHEWAN   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 21344479316     PISSN: 02732297     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/drev.1994.1006     Document Type: Article

References (212)

1. Alston, W. P. (1971). Comments on Kohlberg’s "From is to Ought." In T. Mischel (Ed.), Cognitive development and epistemology (pp. 269-284). New York: Academic Press.
2. Archer, R. L. (1991). Dispositional empathy and a pluralism of prosocial motives. Psychological Inquiry, 2, 123-124.
3. Aronfreed, J. (1968). Conduct and conscience: The socialization of internalized control over behavior. New York: Academic Press.
4. Aronoff, J., & Wilson, J. P. (1984). Personality in the social process. New York: Erlbaum.
5. Baltes, P. B (1990, March). Wisdom. Paper presented at the Third Annual Conference on Cognitive Aging, Atlanta, GA.
6. Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development (Vol. 1, pp. 45-104). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
7. Bar-Tal, D. (1982). Sequential development of helping behavior: A cognitive-leaming approach. Developmental Review, 2, 101-124.
8. Bar-Tal, D., & Raviv, A. (1982). A cognitive-leaming model of helping behavior development. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 199-217). New York: Academic Press.
9. Bar-Tal, Y., & Bar-Tal, D. (1991). Decision-making models of helping behavior: Process and contents. In W. Kurtines & J. Gewirtz (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development (Vol. 2, pp. 1-24). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
10. Bartek, S., Krebs, D. L., & Taylor, M. (1993). Coping, defending, and the relations between moral judgment and moral behavior in prostitutes and other female juvenile delinquents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 66-79.
11. Batson, C. D., & Coke, J. S. (1981). Empathy: A source of altruistic motivation for helping? In J. P. Rushton & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior: Social, personality, and developmental perspectives (pp. 167-187). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
12. Batson, C. D., & Shaw, L. L. (1991). Evidence for altruism: Toward a pluralism of prosocial motives. Psychological Inquiry, 2, 107-122.
13. Beilen, H. (1992). Piaget’s enduring contribution to developmental psychology. Developmental Psychology, 28, 191-204.
14. Berk, L. E. (1991). Child Development. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
15. Bemdt, T. J. (1979). Developmental changes in conformity to peers and parents. Developmental Psychology, 15, 608-616.
16. Blasi, A. (1980). Bridging moral cognition and moral action: A critical review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 1-45.
17. Blasi, A. (1983). Bridging moral cognition and moral action: A theoretical view. Developmental Review, 3, 178-210.
18. Blasi, A. (1984). Moral identity: Its role in moral functioning. In W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Morality, moral behavior, and moral development (pp. 128-139). New York: Wiley.
19. Blasi, A (1990, July). The development of identity: Some implications for moral functioning. Paper presented at a conference on "Self and Identity," Ringberg Schloss, FDR.
20. Blum, L. (1988). Gilligan and Kohlberg: Implications for moral theory. Ethics, 98, 472-491.
21. Boom, J. (1989). Different conceptions of stage in theories of cognitive and moral development. Journal of Moral Education, 18, 208-217.
22. Brainerd, C. J. (1978). The stage question in cognitive-developmental theory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2, 173-213.
23. Brennan, T., & Piechowski, M. (1991). A developmental framework for self-actualization: Evidence from case studies. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 31, 43-65.
24. Bridgeman, D. (1983). Benevolent babies: Emergence of the social self. In D. Bridgeman (Ed.), The nature of prosocial development (pp. 95-111). New York: Academic Press.
25. Brody, G. H., Stoneman, Z., MacKinnon, C. E., & MacKinnon, R. (1985). Role relationships and behavior between preschool-aged and school-aged sibling pairs. Developmental Psychology, 21, 124-129.
26. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
27. Broughton, J. M., & Zahaykevich, M. K. (1988). Ego and ideology: A critical review of Loevinger’s theory. In D. K. Lapsley & F. C. Power (Eds.), Self, ego, and identity: Integrative approaches (pp. 179-208). New York: Springer-Verlag.
28. Brown, B. B., Lohr, M. J., & McClenahan, E. L. (1986). Early adolescents’ perceptions of peer pressure. Journal of Early Adolescence, 6, 139-154.
29. Brown, R. M. (Ed.). (1986). The essential Reinhold Niebuhr: Selected essays and addresses. London: Yale University Press.
30. Carey, S., & Gelman, R. (Eds.). (1991). The epigenesis of mind: Essays on biology and cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
31. Carpendale, J., & Krebs, D. L. (1992). Situational variation in moral judgment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21, 203-224.
32. Carpendale, J., & Krebs, D. L. (in press). Variations in level of moral judgment as a function of type of dilemma and moral choice. Journal of Personality.
33. Carter, R. E. (1986). Beyond justice. Journal of Moral Education, 16, 83-98.
34. Chamg, H. W., Piliavin, J. A., & Callero, P. L. (1988). Role-identity and reasoned action in the prediction of repeated behavior. Social Psychology Quarterly, 51, 303-317.
35. Cialdini, R., Schaller, M., Houlihan, D., Arps, K., Fultz, J., & Beaman, A. (1987). Empathy-based helping: Is it selflessly or selfishly motivated? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 749-758.
36. Clary, G., & Miller, J. (1986). Socialization and situational influences on sustained altruism. Child Development, 57, 1358-1369.
37. Colby, A., & Damon, W. (1992). Some do care: Contemporary lives of moral commitment. New York: The Free Press.
38. Colby, A., & Kohlberg, L. (1975). The relation between logical and moral development. Unpublished manuscript.
39. Colby, A., & Kohlberg, L. (Eds.). (1987). The measurement of moral judgment (Vols. 1-2). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
40. Cosmides, L. (1989). The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped how humans reason? Studies with the Wason selection task. Cognition, 31, 187-276.
41. Cunha, D. (1985). Interpersonal trust as a function of social orientation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Delaware.
42. Dabrowski, K., & Piechowski, M. (1977). Theory of levels of emotional development (2 vols.). Oceanside, NY: Dabor.
43. Dabrowski, K., Kawczak, A., & Piechowski, M. M. (1970). Mental growth through positive disintegration. London: Gryf.
44. Damon, W. (1977). The social world of the child. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
45. Damon, W., & Hart, D. (1992). Self-understanding and its role in social and moral development. In M. H. Bornstein & E. M. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced textbook (2nd ed., pp. 421-465). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
46. Daniels, M. (1984). The relationship between moral development and self-actualization. Journal of Moral Education, 13, 25-30.
47. Denton, K., & Krebs, D. L. (1990). From the scene to the crime: The effect of alcohol and social context on moral judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 242-248.
48. Deutsch, M. (1975). Equity, equality, and need: What determines which value will be used as the basis of distributive justice? Journal of Social Issues, 31, 137-150.
49. Devereaux, E. C. (1970). The role of peer-group experience in moral development. Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology, 4, 94-140.
50. Dienstbier, R. A., Hillman, D., Lehnhoff, J., Hillman, J., & Valkenaar, M. C. (1975). An emotion-attribution approach to moral behavior: Interfacing cognitive and avoidance theories of moral development. Psychological Review, 82, 299-315.
51. Edwards, C. P. (1980). The comparitive study of the development of moral judgment and reasoning. In R. L. Munroe, R. Munroe, & B. B. Whiting (Eds.), Handbook of crosscultural human development (pp. 501-528). New York: Garland.
52. Eisenberg, N. (1986). Altruistic emotion, cognition, and behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
53. Eisenberg, N., Lundy, T., Shell, R., & Roth, K. (1985). Children’s justifications for their adult and peer-directed compliant (prosocial and nonprosocial) behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 21, 325-331.
54. Eisenberg, N., & Miller, P. A. (1987). The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 91-119.
55. Eisenberg, N., Miller, P. A., Shell, R., McNalley, S., & Shea, C. (1991). Prosocial development in adolescence: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 27, 849-857.
56. Eisenberg, N., Pasternack, J. F., Cameron, E., & Tryon, K. (1984). The relations of quantity and mode of prosocial behavior to moral cognitions and social style. Child Development, 55, 1479-1485.
57. Elkind, D. (1967). Egocentrism in adolescence. Child Development, 38, 1025-1034.
58. Epstein, S., & O’Brien, E. (1985). The person-situation debate in historical and current perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 513-537.
59. Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed). New York: W. W. Norton.
60. Fischer, K. W. (1983). Illuminating the processes of moral development. In A. Colby, L. Kohlberg, J. Gibbs, & M. Lieberman (Eds.), A longitudinal study of moral judgment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 48 (Serial No. 200).
61. Flanagan, O. (1991). Varieties of moral personality: Ethics and psychological realism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
62. Flavell, J. H. (1982). On cognitive development. Child Development, 53, 1-10.
63. Flavell, J. H. (1992). Cognitive development: Past, present, and future. Developmental Psychology, 28, 998-1005.
64. Fowler, J. (1976). Stages in faith: The structural developmental approach. In T. C. Hennessey (Ed.), Values and moral development (pp. 173-211). New York: Paulist Press.
65. Frick, W. B. (1982). Conceptual foundations of self-actualization: A contribution to motivation theory. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22, 33-52.
66. Framing, W. J., Allen L., & Jensen, R. (1985). Altruism, role-taking, and self-awareness: The acquisition of norms governing altruistic behavior. Child Development, 56, 1223-1228.
67. Gibbs, J. C. (1991). Toward an integration of Kohlberg’s and Hoffman’s moral development theories. Human Development, 34, 88-104.
68. Gibbs, J. C., Basinger, K. S., & Fuller, D. (1992). Moral maturity: Measuring the development of sociomoral reflection. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
69. Gilligan, C. (1977). In a different voice: Women’s conceptions of self and of morality. Harvard Educational Review, 47, 481-517.
70. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge: MA: Harvard University Press.
71. Gottman, J. M. (1986). The world of coordinated play: Same and cross-sex friendship in young children. In J. M. Gottman & J. C. Parker (Eds.), The conversations of friends. New York: Cambridge University Press.
72. Green, L., & Haymes, M. (1977). Motivational antecedents to maturity of moral judgment. Motivation and Emotion, 1, 165-179.
73. Greenwald, A. G. (1980). The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history. American Psychologist, 35, 603-618.
74. Grim, P., Kohlberg, L., & White, S. (1968). Some relationships between conscience and attentional processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 239-253.
75. Grusec, J. E. (1982). The socialization of altruism. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 139-166). New York: Academic Press.
76. Grusec, J. E., & Lytton, H. (1988). Social development: History, theory, and research. New York: Springer-Verlag.
77. Gunzburger, D., Wegner, D. M., & Anooshian, L. (1977). Moral judgment and distributive justice. Human Development, 20, 160-170.
78. Haan, N. (1977). Two moralities in acting contexts: Relationships to thought, ego regulation, and development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 286-305.
79. Haan, N. (1983). The interactional morality of everyday life. In N. Haan, R. Bellah, P. Rabinow, & W. Sullivan (Eds.), Social science as moral inquiry (pp. 218-250). New York: Columbia University Press.
80. Haan, N., Aerts, E., & Cooper, B. (1985). On moral grounds: The search for practical morality. New York: New York University Press.
81. Halford, G. (1989). Reflections on 25 years of Piagetian cognitive developmental psychology, 1963-1988. Human Development, 32, 325-387.
82. Harr, R. (1984). Personal being: A theory for individual psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
83. Harris, L. (1975). The myth and reality of aging in America. Washington, DC: National Council on Aging.
84. Hay, D. F., & Murray, P. (1982). Giving and requesting: Social facilitation of infants’ offers to adults. Infant Behavior and Development, 5, 301-310.
85. Hay, D. F., & Rheingold, H. (1983). The early appearance of some valued social behaviors. In D. Bridgeman (Ed.), The nature of prosocial development (pp. 73-94). New York: Academic Press.
86. Helminiak, E. A. (1987). Spiritual development: An interdisciplinary study. Chicago: Loyola University Press.
87. Helson, R., & Wink, P. (1987). Two conceptions of maturity examined in the findings of a longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 531-541.
88. Higgins, A. (1989). Continuities and discontinuities in self-regulatory and self-evaluative processes: A developmental theory relating self and affect. Journal of Personality, 57, 407-444.
89. Higgins, A., & Eccles-Parsons, J. E. (1983). Social cognition and the social life of the child: Stages as subcultures. In E. T. Higgins, D. N. Ruble, & W. W. Hartup (Eds.), Social cognition and social development: A sociocultural perspective (pp. 15-62). New York: Cambridge University Press.
90. Hoffman, M. L. (1975). The development of altruistic motivation. In D. J. DePalma & M. J. Foley (Eds.), Moral development: Current theory and research (pp. 137-151). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
91. Hoffman, M. L. (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: Empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 281-313). New York: Academic Press.
92. Hoffman, M. L. (1991). Commentary. Human Development, 34, 105-110.
93. Holstein, C. B. (1976). Irreversible, stepwise sequence in the development of moral judgment: A longitudinal study of males and females. Child Development, 47, 51-61.
94. Hook, J. G., & Cook, T. D. (1979). Equity theory and the cognitive ability of children. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 429-445.
95. Homstein, H. (1991). Empathic distress and altruism: Still inseparable. Psychological Inquiry, 2, 133-135.
96. Howes, C., & Farver, J. (1987). Toddlers’ responses to the distress of their peers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 8, 441-452.
97. Izard, C. E. (1993). Four systems for emotion activation: Cognitive and noncognitive processes. Psychological Review, 100, 68-90.
98. Jarymowicz, M. (1992). Self, we, and other(s): Schemata distinctiveness and altruism. In P. Oliner, S. Oliner, L. Baron, L. Blum, D. Krebs, & Z. Smolenska (Eds.), Embracing the other: Philosophical, psychological, and historical perspectives on altruism (pp. 194-212). New York: New York University Press.
99. Johnson, D. (1982). Altruistic behavior and the development of the self in infants. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 28, 379-388.
100. Kahn, P. H. (1991). Bounding the controversies: Foundational issues in the study of moral development. Human Development, 34, 325-340.
101. Karylowski, J. (1982). Two types of altruistic behavior: Doing good to feel good or to make the other feel good. In V. J. Derlaga & J. Grzelak (Eds.), Cooperation and helping behavior: Theories and research (pp. 398-413). New York: Academic Press.
102. Karylowski, J. (1984). Focus of attention and altruism: Endocentric and exocentric sources of altruistic behavior. In E. Staub, D. Bar-Tal, J. Karylowski, & J. Reykowski (Eds.), Development and maintenance of prosocial behavior: International perspectives on positive morality (pp. 139-154). New York: Plenum.
103. Katosh, J. P., & Traugott, J. W. (1982). Cost and values in the calculus of voting. American Journal of Political Science, 26, 361-367.
104. Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self: Problem and process in human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
105. Kohlberg, L. (1984). Essays on moral development: Vol. 2. The psychology of moral development. San Francisco: Harper and Row.
106. Kohlberg, L., Boyd, D., & Levine, C. (1990). The return of Stage 6: Its principle and moral point of view. In T. Wren (Ed.), The moral domain: Essays in the ongoing discussion between philosophy and the social sciences (pp. 151-181). London: MIT Press.
107. Kohlberg, L., & Candee, D. (1984). The relationship of moral judgment to moral action. In L. Kohlberg (Ed.), Essays on moral development: Vol. 2. The psychology of moral development (pp. 498-581). New York: Harper and Row.
108. Kohlberg, L., & Power, C. (1981). Moral development, religious thinking, and the question of a seventh stage. In L. Kohlberg (Ed.), Essays on moral development: Vol. I. The philosophy of moral development (pp. 311-372). New York: Harper and Row.
109. Kopp, C. B. (1982). Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18, 199-214.
110. Krebs, D. (1982a). Psychological approaches to altruism: An evaluation. Ethics, 92, 147-158.
111. Krebs, D. (1982b). Helping in emergencies: The construction and disintegration of a model. Contemporary Psychology, 27, 775-777.
112. Krebs, D. (1982c). Altruism-A rational approach. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 53-76). New York: Academic Press.
113. Krebs, D. (1982d). Prosocial behavior, equity, and justice. In J. Greenberg & R. L. Cohen (Eds.), Equity and justice in social behavior (pp. 261-308). New York: Academic Press.
114. Krebs, D. L. (1983). Commentaries and critiques. In D. Bridgeman (Ed.), The nature of prosocial development: Interdisciplinary theories and strategies (pp. 205-217). New York: Academic Press.
115. Krebs, D. L. (1987). The challenge of altruism in biology and psychology. In C. Crawford, M. Smith, & D. Krebs (Eds.), Sociobiology and psychology: Ideas, issues, and applications (pp. 81-118). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
116. Krebs, D. L. (1991). Altruism and egoism: A false dichotomy? Psychological Inquiry, 2, 137-139.
117. Krebs, D. L., Denton, K., & Higgins, N. (1988). On the evolution of self-knowledge and self-deception. In K. McDonald (Ed.), Sociobiologicalperspectives on human behavior (pp. 103-139). New York: Springer-Verlag.
118. Krebs, D. L., Denton, K., Vermeulen, S. C., Carpendale, J. I., & Bush, A. (1991a). The structural flexibility of moral judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 1012-1023.
119. Krebs, D. L., & Gillmore, J. (1982). The relationship among the first stages of cognitive development, role-taking, and moral development. Child Development, 53, 877-886.
120. Krebs, D., & Miller, D. (1985). Altruism and aggression. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., Vol. II, pp. 1-71). New York: Random House.
121. Krebs, D., & Russell, C. (1981). Role-taking and altruism: When you put yourself in the shoes of another, will they carry you to their owner’s aid? In J. P. Rushton & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior: Social, personality, and developmental perspectives (pp. 137-166). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
122. Krebs, D. L., Vermeulen, S. C. Carpendale, J. I., & Denton, K. (1991b). Structural and situational influences on moral judgment: The interaction between stage and dilemma. In W. Kurtines & J. Gewirtz (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development: Vol. 2. Theory, research, and application (pp. 139-169). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
123. Krebs, D., Vermeulen, S., & Denton, K. (1991). Competence and performance in moral judgment: From the ideal to the real. Moral Education Forum, 16, 7-22.
124. Krebs, D. L., & Wispé, L. (1974). On defining altruism. Journal of Social Issues, 30, 194-199.
125. Kuhn, D. (1992). Cognitive development. In M. H. Bomstein & E. M. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced textbook (2nd ed., pp. 211-272). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
126. Laird, P., & Krebs, D. L. (1993). Self-serving bias in attributions about moral transgressions. Paper presented at the 1993 Annual Convention of the Canadian Psychological Association, Montréal, Quebec, Canada.
127. Latané, B., & Darley, J. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn’t he help? New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
128. Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Cognition and motivation in emotion. American Psychologist, 46, 352-367.
129. Lee, L., & Snarey, J. (1988). The relationship between ego and moral development: A theoretical review and empirical analysis. In D. K. Lapsley & F. C. Power (Eds.), Self, ego, and identity: Integrated approaches (pp. 151-178). New York: Springer-Verlag.
130. Leventhal, G. (1976). The distribution of rewards and resources in groups and organizations. In L. Berkowitz & E. Walster (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 9, pp. 91-131). New York: Academic Press.
131. Levin, I. (1986). Stage and structure: Reopening the debate. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
132. Levine, C. (1979). Stage acquisition and stage use: An appraisal of stage displacement explanations of variation in moral reasoning. Human Development, 22, 145-164.
133. Liebert, R. M. (1979). Moral development: A theoretical and empirical analysis. In G. J. Whitehurst & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), The functions of language and cognition (pp. 229-259). New York: Academic Press.
134. Locke, D. (1986). A psychologist among the philosophers: Philosophical aspects of Kohlberg’s theories. In S. Modgil & C. Modgil (Eds.), Lawrence Kohlberg: Consensus and controversy (pp. 21-42). Philadelphia: The Falmer Press.
135. Loevinger, J. (1976). Ego development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
136. Loevinger, J. (1979). Construct validity of the sentence completion test of ego development. Applied Psychological Measurement, 3, 281-311.
137. Loevinger, J. (1985). Revision of the sentence completion test for ego development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 420-427.
138. Loevinger, J. (1987). Paradigms of personality. New York: W. H. Freeman.
139. Loevinger, J., & Knoll, E. (1983). Personality: Stages, traits, and the self. Annual Review of Psychology, 34, 195-222.
140. Lutwak, N. (1984). The interrelationship of ego, moral, and conceptual development in a college group. Adolescence, 19, 674-688.
141. Mancuso, J. C., & Sarbin, T. R. (1976). A paradigmatic analysis of psychological issues at the interface of jurisprudence and moral conduct. In T. Lickona (Ed.), Moral development and behavior: Theory, research, and social issues (pp. 326-341). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
142. Markus, H. (1983). Self-knowledge: An expanded view. Journal of Personality, 52, 543-565.
143. Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York: Harper and Row.
144. Midlarsky, E. (1992). Helping in late life. In P. Oliner, S. Oliner, L. Baron, L. Blum, D. Krebs, & Z. Smolenska (Eds.), Embracing the other: Philosophical, psychological, and historical perspectives on altruism (pp. 253-275). New York: New York University Press.
145. Miller, P. A., Bemzweig, J., Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1991). The development and socialization of prosocial behavior. In R. A. Hinde & J. Groebel (Eds.), Cooperation and prosocial behavior (pp. 54-77). New York: Cambridge University Press.
146. Mischel, W., & Mischel, H. N. (1976). A cognitive social-learning approach to morality and self-regulation. In T. Lickona (Ed.), Moral development and behavior: Theory, research and social issues (pp. 84-107). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
147. Montada, L. (1992). Predicting prosocial commitment in different cultural contexts. In P. Oliner, S. Oliner, L. Baron, L. Blum, D. Krebs, & Z. Smolenska, (Eds.), Embracing the other: Philosophical, psychological, and historical perspectives on altruism (pp. 226-252). New York: New York University Press.
148. Moriarty, T. (1975). Crime, commitment and the responsive bystander: Two field experiments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 370-376.
149. Murphy, L. B. (1937). Social behavior and child personality: An exploratory study of some roots of sympathy. New York: Columbia University Press.
150. Noam, G. (1988). Self-complexity and self-integration: Theory and therapy in clinical-developmental psychology. Journal of Moral Education, 17, 230-245.
151. Oliner, S. P., & Oliner, P. M. (1988). The altruistic personality: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe. New York: Free Press.
152. Oosterhuis, A. H. (1984). Altruism: The interface of religion and psychology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Alberta, Edmonton.
153. Patterson, D. E. (1977). Reinhold Niebuhr. Waco, TX: Word Books.
154. Pearl, R. A. (1979). Developmental and situational influences on children’s understanding of prosocial behavior. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, San Francisco, CA.
155. Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
156. Piaget, J. (1960). The general problem of the psycho-biological development of the child. In J. M. Tanner & B. Inhelder (Eds.), Discussions on child development (Vol. 4, pp. 3-27). New York: International Universities Press.
157. Piechowski, M. (1978). Self-actualization as a developmental structure: A profile of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 97, 181-242.
158. Piechowski, M., & Tyska, C. (1982). Self-actualization profile of Eleanor Roosevelt, a presumed nontranscender. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 1105, 95-153.
159. Piliavin, J. A., & Chamg, H. (1990). Altruism: A review of recent theory and research. Annual Review of Sociology, 16, 27-65.
160. Piliavin, J. A. Dovidio, J. R. Gaertner, S. L., & Clark, R. D. (1981). Emergency intervention. New York: Academic Press.
161. Power, C., & Kohlberg, L. (1980). Religion, morality, and ego development. In J. Fowler & A. Vergote (Eds.), Toward moral and religious maturity (pp. 343-372). Morristown, NJ: Silver Burdett.
162. Puka, B. (1983). Altruism and moral development. In D. L. Bridgeman (Ed.), The nature of prosocial development: Interdisciplinary theories and strategies (pp. 185-204). New York: Academic Press.
163. Puka, B. (1990). The majesty and mystery of Kohlberg’s Stage 6. In T. E. Wren (Ed.), The moral domain: Essays in the ongoing discussion between philosophy and the social sciences (pp. 182-223). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
164. Puka, B. (1991). Interpretive experiments: Probing the care-justice debate in moral development. Human Development, 34, 61-80.
165. Radke-Yarrow, M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1984). Roots, motives, and patterns in children’s prosocial behavior. In E. Staub, D. Bar-Tal, J. Karylowski, & J. Reykowski (Eds.), Development and maintenance of prosocial behavior: International perspectives on positive development (pp. 81-115). New York: Plenum Press.
166. Radke-Yarrow, M., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Chapman, M. (1983). Children’s prosocial dispositions and behavior. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Manual of child psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality and social development (pp. 469-545). New York: Wiley.
167. Radke-Yarrow, M., Zahn-Waxler, C., Cummings, M., Strope, B., & Sebris, S. L. (1981). Continuities and change in the prosocial and aggressive behavior of young children. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston, MA.
168. Reno, R. R., Cialdini, R. B., & Kallgren, C. A. (1993). The transsituational influence of social norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 104-112.
169. Rest, J. (1979). Development in judgment of moral issues. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
170. Rest, J. F. (1983). Morality. In J. H. Flavell & E. M. Markman (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Cognitive development (4th ed., pp. 556-629). New York: Wiley.
171. Rest, J. (1986). Moral development in young adults. In R. A. Mines & K. S. Kitchener (Eds.), Adult cognitive development: Methods and models (pp. 92-111). New York: Praeger.
172. Reykowski, J. (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: A dialetic process. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 377-394). New York: Academic Press.
173. Rheingold, H. L. (1982). Little children’s participation in the work of adults: A nascent prosocial behavior. Child Development, 53, 114-125.
174. Rogers, T. B. (1981). A model of the self as an aspect of the human information processing system. In N. Cantor & J. F. Kihlstrom (Eds.), Personality, cognition and social interaction (pp. 93-214). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
175. Rushton, J. P. (1981). The altruistic personality. In J. P. Rushton & R. M. Sonrentino (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior: Social, personality, and developmental perspectives (pp. 251-266). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
176. Rushton, J. P. (1982). Altruism and society: A social learning perspective. Ethics, 92, 425-446.
177. Rybash, J. W., Roodin, P. A., & Santrock, J. W. (1991). Adult development and aging (2nd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
178. Sagi, A., & Hoffman, M. L. (1976). Empathic distress in the newborn. Developmental Psychology, 12, 175-176.
179. Sampson, E. E. (1981). Cognitive psychology as ideology. American Psychologist, 36, 730-743.
180. Schaie, K. W. (1977). Toward a stage theory of adult cognitive development. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 8, 129-138.
181. Schwartz, S. H. (1977). Normative influences on altruism. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 221-279). New York: Academic Press.
182. Schwartz, S. H., & Howard, J. A. (1981). A normative decision-making model of altruism. In J. P. Rushton & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior: Social, personality, and developmental perspectives (pp. 251-266). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
183. Selman, R. (1971). The relation of role-taking to the development of moral judgment in children. Child Development, 42, 79-91.
184. Selman, R. (1976). Social-cognitive understanding: A guide to educational and clinical practice. In T. Lickona (Ed.), Moral development and behavior: Theory, research, and social issues (pp. 299-316). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
185. Selman, R. (1980). The growth of interpersonal understanding. New York: Academic Press.
186. Simpson, E. (1974). Moral development research: A case of scientific bias. Human Development, 17, 81-106.
187. Skoe, E., & Marcia, J. (1991). A measure of care-based morality and its relation to ego identity. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 37, 289-304.
188. Snarey, J. (1985). Cross-cultural universality of social-moral development: A critical review of Kohlbergian research. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 202-232.
189. Snarey, J. (1986). The relationship of social-moral development with cognitive and ego development: A cross-cultural study. Behavior Science Research, 21, 132-146.
190. Snarey, J., Kohlberg, L., & Noam, G. (1983). Ego development in perspective: Structural stage, functional phase, and cultural age-period models. Developmental Review, 3, 303-338.
191. Snyder, M., & Ickes, W. J. (1985). Personality and social behavior. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., pp. 883-947). New York: Random House.
192. Snyder, M., & Kendzierski, D. (1982). Acting on one’s attitudes: Procedures for linking attitudes and behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 165-183.
193. Sorokin, P. A. (1950). Love: Its aspects, production, transformation and accumulation. In P. A. Sorokin (Ed.), Explorations in altruistic love and behavior (pp. 3-73). Boston: Beacon Press.
194. Staub, E. (1984). Steps toward a comprehensive theory of moral conduct: Goal orientation, social behavior, kindness, and cruelty. In W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Morality, moral development, and moral behavior: Basic issues in theory and research (pp. 241-260). New York: Wiley.
195. Strayer, F. F., Wareing, S., & Rushton, J. P. (1979). Social constraints on naturally occurring preschool altruism. Ethology and Sociobiology, 1, 3-11.
196. Sullivan, E. V., McCullough, G., & Stager, M. (1970). A developmental study of the relationship between conceptual, ego, and moral development. Child Development, 41, 399-411.
197. Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner Mazel.
198. Tyler, T. R., & Caine, A. (1981). The influence of outcomes and procedures on satisfaction with formal leaders. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 642-655.
199. Underwood, B., & Moore, B. (1982). Perspective-taking and altruism. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 141-173.
200. Walden, T. A., & Ogan, T. A. (1988). The development of social referencing. Child Development, 59, 1230-1240.
201. Walker, L. J. (1980). Cognitive and perspective-taking prerequisites for moral development. Child Development, 51, 131-139.
202. Walker, L. J. (1982). The sequentiality of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. Child Development, 53, 1330-1336.
203. Ward, R. A. (1979). The meaning of voluntary association participation to older people. Journal of Gerontology, 34, 438-445.
204. Wason, P. C., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1972). Psychology of reasoning: Structure and content. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
205. Weiner, B. A. (1980). Cognitive (attribution)-emotion-action model of motivated behavor: An analysis of judgments of help-giving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 186-200.
206. Wicklund, R. A. (1982). How society uses self-awareness. In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 1, pp. 209-230). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
207. Wilber, K. (1983). Eye to eye. New York: Anchor Books.
208. Youniss, J. (1980). Parents and peers in social development: A Sullivan-Piaget perspective. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
209. Youniss, J. (1986). Development in reciprocity through friendship. In C. Zahn-Waxler, M. Cummings, & R. Ianottie (Eds.), Altruism and aggression: Biological and social origins (pp. 88-106), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
210. Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M., Wagner, E., & Chapman, M. (1992). Development of concern for others. Developmental Psychology, 28, 126-136.
211. Zarbatany, L., Hartmann, D., & Gelfand, D. (1985). Why does children’s generosity increase with age: Susceptibility to experimenter influence on altruism? Child Development, 56, 746-756.
212. Zeldin, R., Savin-Williams, R., & Small, S. (1984). Dimension of prosocial behavior in adolescent males. Journal of Social Psychology, 123, 159-168.