Whale meat in American history

Environmental History

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 269-294

  Shoemaker, Nancy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; ENVIRONMENTAL VALUES; FISHERY POLICY; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; NATURE-SOCIETY RELATIONS; WHALING;

NORTH AMERICA; UNITED STATES; WESTERN HEMISPHERE; WORLD;

CETACEA;

EID: 20844448608     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/envhis/10.2.269     Document Type: Article

References (198)

1. "Bradford's and Winslow's Journal" [Mourt's Relation] (1622), in Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers of the Colony of Plymouth, 1602-1625, ed. Alexander Young (1841; reprint, New York: Da Capo Press, 1971), 151-53.
2. Richard Ellis, Dolphins and Porpoises (New York: Knopf, 1989), 156-63;
3. James Kinsella, "Roving Pods Stay Together, Even in Peril" Cape Cod Times, 30 July 2002, www.CapeCodonline.com/archives/.
4. "Bradford's and Winslow's Journal," 119, 146.
5. Richard Ellis, Men and Whales (New York: Knopf, 1991);
6. and J. T. Jenkins, A History of the Whale Fisheries, from the Basque Fisheries of the Tenth Century to the Hunting of the Finner Whale at the Present Date (1921; reprint, Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1971).
7. For European whaling history through the early nineteenth century, see William Scoresby, An Account of the Arctic Regions, with a Description of the Northern Whale-Fishery, 2 vols. (1820; reprint, Trowbridge, Wiltshire, England: Newton Abbot, David & Charles, 1969).
8. Meat foods are a more common source of taboos than plant foods and more likely to produce feelings of revulsion: See Frederick J. Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present, 2nd. ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994), 297, 299;
9. and Paul Rozin, et al., "Disgust Preadaptation and the Cultural Evolution of a Food-Based Emotion," in Food Preferences and Taste: Continuity and Change, ed. Helen Macbeth (Providence, R.I.: Berghahn, 1997), 68.
10. U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act, U.S. Code, vol. 16, secs. 1361-1421 (1972).
11. Andre Gunder Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967);
12. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System, 3 vols. (New York: Academic Press, 1974-1989);
13. and Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People without History (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982).
14. Stephen Mennell, All Manners of Food: Eating and Taste in England and France from the Middle Ages to the Present (New York: Blackwell, 1985);
15. Edmund Leach, "Anthropological Aspects of Language: Animal Categories and Verbal Abuse," in New Directions in the Study of Language, ed. Eric H. Lenneberg (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1964), 23-63;
16. Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (New York: Praeger, 1966);
17. and Marvin Harris, Good to Eat: Riddles of Food and Culture (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986).
18. For British resistance to eating whale meat, see Gordon Jackson, The British Whaling Trade (Hamden, Conn.: Archon, 1978), 165-66. A 1992 survey of attitudes toward various meats conducted in six nations (Australia, England, Germany, Japan, Norway, and the United States) found considerably more acceptance of whale meat in Japan and Norway than in the other nations, with the three English-speaking countries the least accepting;
19. Milton M. R. Freeman and Stephen R. Kellert, "International Attitudes to Whales, Whaling and the Use of Whale Products: A Six-Country Survey," in Elephants and Whales: Resources for Whom?, ed. M. R. Freeman and Urs P. Kreuter (Basel, Switzerland: Gordon and Breach, 1994), 297, 312.
20. On the arctic, see Sam W. Stoker and Igor I. Krupnik, "Subsistence Whaling," in The Bowhead Whale, ed. John J. Burns, J. Jerome Montague, and Cleveland J. Cowles (Lawrence, Kansas: Society for Marine Mammalogy, 1993): 579-629;
21. Allen P. McCartney, ed., Thule Eskimo Culture: An Anthropological Retrospective, Archaeological Survey of Canada Paper #88 (Ottawa: National Museums of Canada, 1979);
22. and Allen P. McCartney, "The Nature of Thule Eskimo Whale Use," Arctic 33 (1980): 517-41.
23. For a survey of ancient whaling worldwide, see Ivan T. Sanderson, Follow the Whale (London: Cassell, 1958), 3-122.
24. Charles M. Scammon, The Marine Mammals of the North-Western Coast of North America and the American Whale Fishery (1874; reprint, Riverside, Calif.: Manessier, 1969), 29-32.
25. Sverre Patursson, "Whale-Hunting in the Faero Islands," The Trident, a Magazine of the Sea 8 (1946): 426-27;
26. Jonathan Wylie and David Margolin, The Ring of Dancers: Images of Faroese Culture (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 108;
27. and Ellis, Dolphins and Porpoises, 162.
28. John Bockstoce, ed., The Journal of Rochfort Maguire, 1852-1854: Two Years at Point Barrow, Alaska, Aboard HMS Plover in the Search for Sir John Franklin, 2 vols. (London: Hakluyt Society, 1988), 1: 55, 202;
29. and John Bockstoce, "On the Development of Whaling in the Western Thule Culture," Folk 18 (1976): 41-46.
30. Ellis, Men and Whales, 406;
31. J. N. Tønnessen and A.O. Johnsen, The History of Modern Whaling, trans. R. I. Christophersen (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982), 661;
32. and C. W. Nicol, Ayukawa, A Whaler's Town, Whales and Whalers, Do the Japanese Really Eat Whales (Tokyo: Japan Whaling Association, [1979]), 38-39, 50-51.
33. Magnus Degerbol, "Mammalia," Section 65, in The Zoology of the Faroes, ed. A. S. Jensen, et al., 3 vols. (Copenhagen: A.F. Host & Sons, 1935-42), 3 (pt.2):122;
34. "Annex G: Report of the Sub-Committee on Small Cetaceans," in International Whaling Commission (IWC), Forty-Second Report of the International Whaling Commission (Cambridge, England: IWC, 1992), 197-99;
35. and Wylie and Margolin, Ring of Dancers, ch. 5.
36. Lucas Jacobson Debes, Faeroae, & Faeroa Referata: That Is a Description of the Islands & Inhabitants of Foeroe (London: F.L. for William Iles, 1676), 171-77.
37. For similar, later descriptions of the drive and whale foods it produced, see G. Landt, A Description of the Feroe Islands, Containing an Account of Their Situation, Climate, and Productions; Together with the Manners, and Customs, of the Inhabitants, Their Trade, &c. (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, 1810), 356-62;
38. and Heoin Brú, The Old Man and his Sons, trans. John F. West (New York: Eriksson, 1970). Other North Atlantic islanders also drove pilot whales ashore to use as food;
39. See M. Martin, A Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, 2nd ed. (London: A. Bell, 1716), 5-6.
40. For Faroese export of "train oil" (fish and whale oil), see John F. West, Faroe: The Emergence of a Nation (New York: Eriksson 1972), 21, 99-100. Pilot whales, served fresh or "corned," were also an important food in Barrouallie, in the West Indies, in the twentieth century:
41. See John E. Adams, "Shore Whaling in St. Vincent Island, West Indies," Caribbean Quarterly 19 (1973): 42-50.
42. Quotes are from Landt, Description of the Feroe Islands, 356.
43. For an analysis of the excitement generated, see Kate Sanderson, "Grind - Ambiguity and Pressure to Conform: Faroese Whaling and Anti-Whaling Protest," in Freeman and Kreuter, eds., Elephants and Whales, 187-201.
44. Landt, Description of the Feroe Islands, 215-16, 362;
45. see also Debes, Faeroae, & Faeroa Referata, 181, 184.
46. The bones of small, immature bowhead whales abound at arctic archaeological sites while contemporary Inuit whalers also favor small bowheads, according to Stoker and Krupnik, "Subsistence Whaling," 589, 616;
47. and Allen P. McCartney, "Whale Size Selection by Precontact Hunters of the North American Western Arctic and Subarctic," in Hunting the Largest Animals: Native Whaling in the Western Arctic and Subarctic, ed. Allen P. McCartney (Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Circumpolar Institute, University of Alberta, 1995), 83-108.
48. For maktak as a delicacy in the nineteenth-century arctic, see Charles Francis Hall, Life with the Esquimaux: A Narrative of Arctic Experience in Search of Survivors of Sir John Franklin's Expedition (1864; reprint, Rutland, Vt.: C.E. Tuttle, 1970), 109.
49. As recorded in Inuit oral histories, see Dorothy Harley Eber, When the Whalers Were Up North: Inuit Memories from the Eastern Arctic (Boston: D.R. Godine, 1989), 29, 93, 145.
50. For anthropological studies, see Carol Zane Jolles, Faith, Food, and Family in a Yupik Whaling Family (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), 215, 286;
51. "Report of the Cultural Anthropology Panel," in Aboriginal/ Subsistence Whaling (with special reference to the Alaska and Greenland Fisheries): Reports of the International Whaling Commission, Special Issue 4, ed. G. P. Donovan (Cambridge, England: IWC, 1982), 43.
52. Scammon, Marine Mammals, 32;
53. Hartson H. Bodfish, Chasing the Bowhead (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1936), 92.
54. On contemporary fins, flukes, noses, and cheeks, see Jolles, Faith, Food, and Family, 294, 298;
55. Marc G. Stevenson, Inuit, Whalers, and Cultural Persistence: Structure in Cumberland Sound and Central Inuit Social Organization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), xx;
56. and James M. Savelle and T. Max Friesen, "An Odontocete (Cetacea) Meat Utility Index," Journal of Archaeological Science 23 (1996): 718.
57. Scammon, Marine Mammals, 94;
58. "Mr. Petroff," in The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, ed. G. Brown Goode, Section V, Vol. 2. Part XV: "The Whale-Fishery" (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1884-87), 61-62.
59. On the recent eastern arctic, see Richard A. Caulfield, Greenlanders, Whales, and Whaling: Sustainability and Self-Determination in the Arctic (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1997), 59, 69-70, 102-03;
60. and Jens Dahl, Saqqaq: An Inuit Hunting Community in the Modern World (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000), 66-109.
61. Stoker and Krupnik, "Subsistence Whaling," 589;
62. Charles L. Newhall, The Adventures of Jack: or, a Life on the Wave (1859; reprint, Fairfield, Wash.: Ye Galleon Press, 1981), 32;
63. and Jolles, Faith, Food, and Family, 73.
64. [Milton M. R. Freeman, ed.], Small-Type Coastal Whaling in Japan: Report of an International Workshop, Boreal Institute for Northern Studies Occasional Publication Number 27 (Edmonton, Alberta: Boreal Institute, 1988), 4, 66-73, 90-100;
65. Arne Kalland and Brian Moeran, Japanese Whaling, End of an Era? (London: Curzon, 1992), 28-29, 37, 39, 145;
66. Masami Iwasaki-Goodman, "An Analysis of Social and Cultural Change in Ayukawa-Hama (Ayukawa Shore Community)," (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Alberta, 1994), 103-104;
67. Nicol, Ayukawa; Masayuki Komatsu and Shigeko Misaki, Whales and the Japanese: How We Have Come to Live in Harmony with the Bounty of the Sea (Tokyo: Institute of Cetacean Research, 2003), 56-58, 125, 131, 160-61;
68. and Leonard Harrison Matthews, The Whale (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968), 226-27.
69. Norwegian whalers marketed whale foods for human consumption in Europe, but food was not their primary objective: See Tønnessen and Johnsen, History of Modern Whaling, 52.
70. Kalland and Moeran, Japanese Whaling, 70, 100, 147;
71. and Tønnessen and Johnsen, History of Modern Whaling, 662-63.
72. Komatsu and Misaki, Whales and the Japanese, 118;
73. and Yutaka Hirasawa, "The Whaling Industry in Japan's Economy," in The Whaling Issue in U.S.-Japan Relations, ed. John R. Schmidhauser and George O. Totten III (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1978), 82-114.
74. Stoker and Krupnik, "Subsistence Whaling," 614-15;
75. and Jackson, British Whaling Trade, 166.
76. Randall R. Reeves, "The Origins and Character of 'Aboriginal Subsistence' Whaling: A Global Review," Mammal Review 32 (2002): 71-106.
77. On the West Indies, see John Edward Adams, "Historical Geography of Whaling in Bequia Island, West Indies," Caribbean Studies 11 (1971): 55-74;
78. and Lois King Winn and Howard E. Winn, Wings in the Sea: The Humpback Whale (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1985), 123-27.
79. On the Tonga Islands, see William Dawbin, "Whaling and Its Impact on the People of the South Pacific," in South Pacific Islands, ed. Peter Stanbury and Lydia Bushell (Sydney, Australia: Macleay Museum, 1984), 77-90.
80. Ambroise Paré, The Collected Works of Ambroise Paré, trans. Thomas Johnson (1634; reprint, Pound Ridge, N.Y.: Milford House, 1968), 1012;
81. Ellis, Men and Whales, 44;
82. and Frank Hawley, Miscellanea Japonica II: Being Occasional Contributions to Japanese Studies. Whales and Whaling in Japan, (Kyoto, Japan: by author, 1958), 140-43.
83. Reeves, "Aboriginal Whaling," 93;
84. Sam Howe Verhovek, "After the Hunt, Bitter Protest and Salty Blubber," The New York Times, 19 May 1999, A14;
85. and Robert Sullivan, A Whale Hunt (New York: Scribner, 2000).
86. Komatsu and Misaki, Whales and the Japanese, 66.
87. Jolles, Faith, Food, and Family, 41.
88. Henry David Thoreau, Cape Cod (1864; reprint, Orleans, Mass.: Parnassus Imprints, 1984), 166.
89. On whalemen's diet, see Goode, ed., Fisheries and Fishery Industries, "The Whale-Fishery," 228;
90. and William C. Paddack, Life on the Ocean, or Thirty-Five Years at Sea, being the Personal Adventures of the Author (Cambridge, Mass.: Riverside Press, 1893), 21.
91. For complaints about the same, see Ben-Ezra Stiles Ely, "There She Blows:" A Narrative of a Whaling Voyage, in the Indian and South Atlantic Oceans, ed. Curtis Dahl (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1971), 9;
92. and James A. Rogers, Journal of Whaling Voyage of Ship Mentor of New London (New Bedford, Mass.: Reynolds, [n.d.]), entry for 15 November 1840.
93. On porpoises, see Frank T. Bullen, The Cruise of the Cachalot (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1925), 19;
94. William John Hopkins, She Blows! And Sparm at That! (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1922), 124;
95. and Amy Jenness, ed., "Azubah Cashs Whaling Days," Historic Nantucket 53 (2004): 5.
96. On porpoises and dolphins, see Annie Holmes Ricketson, Mrs. Ricketson's Whaling Journal (New Bedford, Mass.: Reynolds, 1958), 12, 38.
97. On porpoises and turtles, see Francis Allyn Olmsted, Incidents of a Whaling Voyage, to Which are Added Observations on the Scenery, Manners and Customs, and Missionary Stations of the Sandwich and Society Islands (1841; reprint, Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle, 1969), 92, 94.
98. On Galapagos turtles, see Charles Haskins Townsend, "The Galapagos Tortoises in Their Relation to the Whaling Industry: A Study of Old Logbooks," Zoologica 4 (1925), 55-135.
99. On albatrosses, see Newhall, Adventures of Jack, 26;
100. and Alonzo D. Sampson, Three Times Around the World: Life and Adventures of Alonzo D. Sampson (Buffalo, N.Y.: Express Printing, 1867), 43.
101. On seals, walruses, and polar bears, see Hall, Life with the Esquimaux, 140, 149, 235, 458.
102. On porpoises, albatrosses, turtles, iguanas, and dolphins, see William M. Davis, Nimrod of the Sea, or The American Whaleman (1874; reprint, Boston, Mass.: Charles E. Lauriat, 1926), 18, 106, 112-13, 264.
103. On seals and polar bears, see Bodfish, Chasing the Bowhead, 38, 52.
104. On penguins and seals, see Briton Cooper Busch, ed., Master of Desolation: The Reminiscences of Capt. Joseph J. Fuller (Mystic, Conn.: Mystic Seaport Museum, 1980), 52-53, 64-65.
105. Eight hundred barrels: Kevin S. Reilly, ed., The Journal of George Attwater: Before the Mast on the Whaleship Henry of New Haven, 1820-1823 (New Haven, Conn.: New Haven Colony Historical Society, 2002), 223;
106. One thousand barrels: Olmsted, Incidents of a Whaling Voyage, 65-66;
107. and Joan Druett, ed., "She Was a Sister Sailor": The Whaling Journals of Mary Brewster, 1845-1851 (Mystic, Conn.: Mystic Seaport Museum, 1992), 108.
108. "Six Months Outward Bound: John Jones, Steward, 1852," in Meditations from Steerage: Two Whaling Journal Fragments, ed., Stuart M. Frank, Kendall Whaling Museum Monograph Series, #7 (Sharon, Mass.: Kendall Whaling Museum, 1991), 16.
109. Reilly, Journal of George Attwater, 384;
110. J. Ross Browne, Etchings of a Whaling Cruise, ed. John Seelye (1846; reprint, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968), 63;
111. and Robert Coffin, The Last of the Logan: The True Adventures of Robert Coffin Mariner in the Years 1854 to 1859 wherein are set forth His Pursuit of the Whale, his Shipwreck on Rapid Reef, his Life Among the Cannibals of Fiji, and his Search for Gold in Australia, as Told by Himself and Now First Published, ed. Harold W. Thompson (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1941), 48.
112. Scammon, Marine Mammals, 87.
113. Reilly, Journal of George Attwater, 81, 129, 319.
114. On rotten beef thrown overboard, see Paddack, Life on the Ocean, 91;
115. and George A. Dodge, A Whaling Voyage in the Pacific Ocean and its Incidents, ed. Kenneth R. Martin (Fairfield, Wash.: Ye Galleon Press, 1981), 14.
116. For "whale lean," see Reilly, Journal of George Attwater, 400.
117. On sperm whale tongue, see Olmsted, Incidents of a Whaling Voyage, 92.
118. On tenderloin and tongues, see Bodfish, Chasing the Bowhead, 93.
119. Herman Melville, Moby Dick; or the Whale (1851; reprint, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), ch. 64.
120. Hopkins, She Blows!, 48.
121. John A. Cook, Pursuing the Whale: A Quarter-Century of Whaling in the Arctic (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1926), 40.
122. Enoch Carter Cloud, Enoch's Voyage: Life on a Whaleship, 1851-1854, ed. Elizabeth McLean (Wakefield, R.I.: Moyer Bell, 1994), 279.
123. On work stoppages, see Briton Cooper Busch, "Whaling Will Never Do for Me": The American Whaleman in the Nineteenth Century (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1994), 54-56.
124. On meat as the cause of a work boycott and eventual mutiny, see Paddack, Life on the Ocean, 93-94.
125. The infamous Globe mutiny also had cuts in meat rations as a cause: See Thomas Farel Heffernan, Mutiny on the Globe: The Fatal Voyage of Samuel Comstock (New York: W.W. Norton, 2002), 55, 224.
126. This is how Washington Chase summarized his account of eating whale stews, whale steaks, right whale lips, and blackfish stew, in A Voyage from the United States to South America, Performed During the Years 1821, 1822, & 1823, Embracing a Description of the City of Rio Janeiro [orig], in Brazil; of Every Port of Importance in Chili; of Several in Lower Peru; and of an Eighteen Months Cruise in a Nantucket Whaleship (Newburyport, Mass.: Herald Press, 1823), 71.
127. Scammon, Marine Mammals, 18.
128. On whale steaks, see Dodge, Whaling Voyage in the Pacific Ocean, 15.
129. Bodfish, Chasing the Bowhead, 235.
130. See also Eber, When the Whalers Were Up North;
131. John R. Bockstoce, Whales, Ice, and Men: The History of Whaling in the Western Arctic (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1986), 180-254;
132. and Stevenson, Inuit, Whalers, and Cultural Persistence,.
133. On Junks, see Cloud, Enoch's Voyage, 133-34.
134. On canoes, see Bullen, Cruise of the Cachalot, 255-58;
135. and Cook, Pursuing the Whale, 31, 180.
136. On kayaks, see Robert Ferguson, Arctic Harpooner: A Voyage on the Schooner Abbie Bradford, 1878-1879, ed. Leslie Dalrymple Stair (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1938), 27.
137. Similar exchanges occurred in the West Indies, recounted in Herman A. Jennings, Provincetown or, Odds and Ends from the Tip End (Yarmouthport, Mass.: Fred. Hallett, 1890), 91.
138. On native Hawaiians taking sperm whale meat, see John M. Bullard, ed., Captain Edmund Gardner of Nantucket and New Bedford: His Journal and His Family (New Bedford, Mass.: Bullard, 1958), 34-35.
139. Hall, Life with the Esquimaux, 109, 265, 476-77.
140. "Mr. Petroff," in Goode, ed., Fisheries and Fishery Industries, 62.
141. For comments on Inuit whale eating as pitiable and poverty-induced, see Jenness, "Azubah Cash's Whaling Days," 7.
142. Bodfish, Chasing the Bowhead, 92-93.
143. Hopkins, She Blows!, 48.
144. Bureau of Fisheries, U.S. Department of Commerce, "Whales and Porpoises as Food, With Thirty-Two Recipes," Economic Circular No. 38 (Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office 1918), 3-4, 6-7;
145. Edward T. Martin, "Whale Beef and Whales," Scientific American Supplement 85, #2193 (12 January 1918), 23;
146. C. H. Claudy, "The Whale as a Food Factor: Sea-Grown Meat That Compares Favorably With Beef," Scientific American 118 (9 March 1918), 208-09;
147. and "Whale Meat Approved by the American Public: The Probabilities of Its Ultimate Acceptance and the Advantages Thereof" Scientific American 119 (16 November 1918), 338.
148. For the cooperative marketing efforts of private whaling companies and the U.S. and Canadian governments, see Robert Lloyd Webb, On the Northwest: Commercial Whaling in the Pacific Northwest, 1790-1967 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 1988), 233-34.
149. "Whale Meat Lunch to Boost New Food," The New York Times, 9 February 1918, 22.
150. Roy Chapman Andrews, "Shore-whaling: A World Industry," National Geographic 22 (May 1911): 425, 442;
151. and Roy Chapman Andrews, Whale Hunting with Gun and Camera: A Naturalist's Account of the Modern Shore-whaling Industry, of Whales and their Habits, and of Hunting Experiences in Various Parts of the World (1916; reprint, New York: D. Appleton, 1928), 86.
152. "In Butter," in "The Talk of the Town," The New Yorker 27 (5 January 1952): 15-16;
153. and Herbert Mitgang, "From Whaler to Platter," The New York Times, 14 November 1954, 34, 37.
154. Also, in the 1940s and 1950s-as had happened in World War I-World War II and the Cold War spawned more interest in whale meat in Europe and the United States based on its affordability: See Barbara Squier Adler, "'Thar She Broils!'" The New York Times, 15 April 1951, 71, 73.
155. Into the 1960s, specialty markets continued to carry whale meat, advertised alongside bear, buffalo, wild turkeys, and "suckling pigs"; see, for example, Maryland Market advertisement, The New York Times, 26 December 1963, 30.
156. Warren Belasco and Philip Scranton, eds., Food Nations: Selling Taste in Consumer Societies (New York: Routledge, 2002), especially Jeffrey Charles, "Searching for Gold in Guacamole: California Growers Market the Avocado, 1910-1994," 131-54.
157. Doug Fraser, "Whale Pod Strands Again; Most Perish," 31 July 2002;
158. Doug Fraser, "A Century Ago, Cape Codders Hunted Whales," 1 August, 2002;
159. Cape Cod Times, www.CapeCodonline.com/archives/;
160. "56 Pilot Whales Die," CBSNEWS.com (30 July 2002), www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/07/29/tech/main516748.shtml.
161. Mary Heaton Vorse, Time and the Town: A Provincetown Chronicle, ed. Adele Heller (1942; reprint, New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 304-307, 317, 322.
162. By the early 1980s, rescuing stranded whales became common on Cape Cod; "Many Stranded Whales Die on Cape Cod," The New York Times, 24 December 1983, 8;
163. "Volunteers Mobilizing to Save Stranded Whales," The New York Times, 18 October 1987, 55;
164. "Stranded Whales Freed on Cape Cod," The New York Times, 30 September 1991, 15;
165. and John Leaning, "Stranding Network Earns Its Stripes," Cape Cod Times, www.CapeCodonline.com/archives/.
166. For how attitudes have changed since the early 1970s, see David M. Lavigne, Victor B. Scheffer, and Stephen R. Kellert, "The Evolution of North American Attitudes toward Marine Mammals," in Conservation and Management of Marine Mammals, ed. John R. Twiss, Jr. and Randall R. Reeves (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1999), 10-47.
167. For Faroe Island protests, see Sanderson, "Grind," 196-97.
168. For the Greenpeace anti-whaling campaign, see Robert Hunter, Warriors of the Rainbow: A Chronicle of the Greenpeace Movement (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1979);
169. and Kieran Mulvaney, The Whaling Season: An Inside Account of the Struggle to Stop Commerical Whaling (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2003).
170. Patricia Birnie, ed., International Regulation of Whaling: From Conservation of Whaling to Conservation of Whales and Regulation of Whale-Watching, 2 vols. (New York: Oceana, 1985); on the resolutions of the two conventions, see 2: 679-724.
171. On the IWC's conservation years, see J. L. McHugh, "The Role and History of the International Whaling Commission," in The Whale Problem: A Status Report, ed. William E. Schevill (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), 305-35.
172. On the IWC's recent history, see Robert L. Friedheim, ed., Toward a Sustainable Whaling Regime (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001).
173. On U.S. instigation and promotion of the moratorium, see Tønnessen and Johnsen, History of Modern Whaling, 674-77;
174. Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, International Moratorium of Ten Years on the Killing of All Species of Whales, 92nd Congress, 1st sess., 26 July 1971;
175. Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Preparations for the 32d International Whaling Commission Meeting, 96th Congress, 2nd sess., 30 April and 20 May 1980;
176. Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Review of the 32d International Whaling Commission Meeting, 96th Congress, 2nd sess., 10 September 1980;
177. Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Protection of Whales, 97th Congress, 1st sess., 16 June 1981;
178. and Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Review of the 33d International Whaling Commission Meeting, 97th Cong., 1st sess., 22 September 1981.
179. "Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, Signed at Geneva, September 24th, 1931", and "International Agreements for the Regulation of Whaling" (1946) in Birnie, ed., International Regulation of Whaling, 2: 682, 697.
180. "The Marine Mammal Protection Act as Amended by Public Law 97-58, 97th Congress, H.R. 4084, October 9, 1981," in Birnie, ed., International Regulation of Whaling, 2: 937.
181. "Resolution Concerning Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling," in Birnie, ed., International Regulation of Whaling, 2: 794;
182. and Donovan, Aboriginal/Subsistence Whaling. Also see U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, International Whaling Commission's Deletion of Native Exemption for the Subsistence Harvest of Bowhead Whales (October 1977).
183. Discussions of the term's imprecision can be found in Milton M. R. Freeman, "Is Money the Root of the Problem?: Cultural Conflicts in the IWC," in Friedheim, Toward a Sustainable Whaling Regime, 126-30;
184. Reeves, "Aboriginal Whaling," 76-77;
185. and Nancy Doubleday, "Arctic Whales: Sustaining Indigenous Peoples and Conserving Arctic Resources," in Freeman and Kreuter, Elephants and Whales, 241-61.
186. For Denmark, see Caulfield, Greenlanders, Whales, and Whaling.
187. For examples, see Congress, International Moratorium, 15, 23, 32-34, 50; however, the same issues came up at all the House hearings on the moratorium (see note 66). The Institute of Cetacean Research sent a lobbyist to argue for Japan's use of whales as food to House hearings held in 1980 and 1981, the years immediately preceding the IWC's vote for the moratorium in 1982.
188. Masayuki Komatsu and Shigeko Misaki, The Truth Behind the Whaling Dispute (n.p., 2001), 92;
189. Calvin Sims, "Japan, Feasting on Whale, Sniffs at 'Culinary Imperialism' of U.S.," The New York Times, 10 August 2000, A1, A8;
190. Colin Nickerson, "Japanese Whalers Take on Greenpeace, assail 'Ecofascists,'" Boston Globe, 11 May 1993, 2.
191. Komatsu and Misaki, Whales and the Japanese;
192. Institute of Cetacean Research, Japanese Whaling: Its Roots and Living Tradition (Tokyo: Institute of Cetacean Research, 2003).
193. Komatsu and Misaki, Whales and the Japanese, 54. Similarly, explanations of medieval European whale-eating often mention how whale passed for fish and thus could be eaten on fish days prescribed by the Christian faith;
194. Ellis, Men and Whales, 44.
195. Roger Payne's 1970 sound recording Songs of the Humpback Whale was the popular means by which this belief in humpback intelligence spread. For overviews of the romanticized whale in popular culture, see Arne Kalland, "Whose Whale is That? Diverting the Commodity Path," in Freeman and Kreuter, Elephants and Whales, 162-63;
196. and Freeman and Kellert, "International Attitudes."
197. Komatsu and Misaki,, Whales and the Japanese, 34, 38.
198. Donovan, Aboriginal/Subsistence Whaling, 7, 23-31, 43.