Growing rice after the bomb: Where is Balinese agriculture going?

Critical Asian Studies

Volumn 37, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 209-232

  MacRae, Graeme ^a  

^a MASSEY UNIVERSITY   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY; EXPORT LED DEVELOPMENT; TERRORISM;

ASIA; BALI; EASTERN HEMISPHERE; EURASIA; LESSER SUNDA ISLANDS; MALAY ARCHIPELAGO; SOUTHEAST ASIA; SUNDA ISLES; WORLD;

EID: 20544445407     PISSN: 14672715     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14672710500106267     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. It is more economical for a farmer to feed his family with his own produce from his fields than to sell it and buy it in the market and, although new varieties do not keep well, they keep until the next harvest. But debt repayment, pressing expenses, or offers they can't refuse from rice merchants sometimes force them reluctantly into this option. Farmers with crops surplus to household requirements also sell, usually to merchants.
2. Inul Daratista is a Javanese popular entertainer, who in late 2002 rose to controversial Indonesia-wide prominence for her spectacular gyrating style of dance, provoking something of a moral panic reminiscent of that surrounding Elvis Presley in 1950s America. See Jessica Champagne and F.T. Millah, "Phenom-Inul," Latitudes, June 2003, 14-23.
3. J.H. Boeke, Economics and Economic Policy of Dual Societies, as Exemplified by Indonesia (New York: Institute of Pacific Relations, 1953).
4. Jean Couteau, "After the Kuta Bombing: In Search of the Balinese Soul," Antropologi Indonesia 70, 2003;
5. see also, Urs Ramseyer and I.G.R. Panji Tisna, Bali: Living in two Worlds (Basel: Museum der Kulturen, 2001);
6. Thomas Reuter, ed., Inequality, Crisis and Social Change in Indonesia: The Muted Worlds of Bali (London and New York; Routledge/ Curzon, 2003);
7. Raechelle Rubinstein and Linda Connor, Staying Local in the Global Village: Bali in the Twentieth Century (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999).
8. Christine Foster, personal communication, 24 December 2003.
9. See also, UNDP, World Bank, USAID, "Bali: Beyond the Tragedy," Denpasar, 2003.
10. My fieldwork in Bali since 1993 has been conducted, under the auspices of the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), with the local support of Udayana University (UNUD), and funded by Auckland and Massey Universities. Many of the ideas discussed here originated in discussions with my sponsor and benefactor, Dr. Nyoman Erawan of Fakultus Ekonomi UNUD, to who I am always grateful, the more so when I disagree with him. Thanks also to my friends in the rice fields around Ubud and anonymous farmers elsewhere and the pioneers of alternative agriculture named here, as well as various comrades closer to the frontline of the contest over the future of Bali, including Sherry Entus, Christine Foster, and Ngurah Karyadi. I am grateful also to several colleagues who read and commented on the paper as well as two readers for Critical Asian Studies.
11. Jonathan Rigg, Southeast Asia: The Human Landscape of Modernization and Development, 2d ed. (London and New York: Routledge, 2003).
12. Central Bureau of Statistics, cited in M. Suparmoko, "The Impact of the WTO Agreement on Agriculture in the Rice Sector," paper presented to the Workshop on Integrated Assessment of the WTO Agreement on Agriculture in the Rice Sector, Geneva, 5 April 2002, 4.
13. Roger Montgomery, Sudarno Sumarto, Sulton Mawardi, Syaikhu Usman, Nina Toyamah, Vita Febriany, and John Strain, "Deregulation of Indonesia's Interregional Agricultural Trade," Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies 38, no. 1 (2002): 94-95;
14. Suparmoko, "Impact of the WTO Agreement," 7.
15. Nyoman Erawan, "Kajian Strategi Sektoral Pembangunan Bali," paper presented to public seminar organized by Fakultas Ekonomi, UNUD, Ikayana, ISEI, and Dewan Harian Daerrah, no. 45, Denpasar, 12 March 2003.
16. Indonesian statistical data are not known for either reliability or consistency, but they are sufficient to indicate overall patterns and trends.
17. Respectively, Nyoman Erawan, "Pariwisata Dalam Kaitannya denagan Kebudayaan dan Kepribadian Bangsa," in Kebudayaan dan Kepribadian Bangsa, ed. Tjok. Rai Sudharta, Gusti Gede Ardana, Wayan Ardhika, Wayan Geriya, Nengah Sukartha, and Nengah Medera (Denpasar: Upada Sastra, 1993), 281-99;
18. I Komang Gede Bendesa and Sukarsa cited in I Gede Pitana, "A Letter from Tepi-siring: Agriculture in the Modernising Bali," paper prepared for Modernity in Bali Workshop, University of Wollongong, 10-11 July 1995.
19. Statistik Bali, cited in Pitana, "Letter from Tepi-siring."
20. I Ketut Nehen, cited in ibid.
21. Statistik Indonesia, cited in I Made Jember et al., Faktor yang mempengaruhi pergeseran tenaga kerja sektor pertanian di Bali. Laporan Penelitian (Denpasar: Fakultas Ekonomi, Universitas Udayana, 1996).
22. UNDP and World Bank, Bali, Table 1. See also Sean Foley, "Agriculture and Tourism (INS/90/021), "draft report prepared for Bali Tourism Development Plan, 1991, 20.
23. Foley, "Agriculture and Tourism," 23.
24. Menjelang PJPTII, "Pengembangan Agribisnis Temui Banyak Kendala," Bali Post, 4 December 2003.
25. For a discussion of land values in Bali and their relationship to rice prices, see Graeme MacRae, "The Value of Land in Bali: Land Tenure, Land Reform and Commodification," in Inequality, Crisis and Social Change in Indonesia: The Muted Worlds of Bali, ed. Thomas Reuter (London and New York: Routledge/Curzon, 2003), 143-65.
26. What I refer to as the tourism economy is in fact an increasingly diverse and complex economy characterized by the monetary exchange of a wide range of goods and services, but driven by and ultimately dependent on the flow of outside funds into Bali through tourism.
27. Much harvesting of rice throughout the entire western half of Bali is now done by teams of contractors from East Java, who earn more than twice as much as they would at home.
28. J. Stephen Lansing, Priests and Programmers (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 46-47.
29. Foley, "Agriculture and Tourism."
30. For a summary of key themes, see my brief article, "Ritual, Politics and Tourism," Inside Indonesia 74 (2003): 22.
31. "Pasca Tragedi Kuta: Investor Lokal harus Bangkit," Bali Post, 15 October 2002.
32. "'Recovery' Bali hanya 'Sorak-sorai' - Belum Sentuh Kepentingan Rakyat Bali," Bali Post, 18 January 2003.
33. "Ida Pedanda Gede Made Gunung, Pejabat Kehilangan Rasa Malu," Bali Post, 18 January 2003.
34. W. Juniarsa, "Festival Showcases Ancient Agrarian Roots" Jakarta Post, 27 March 2003.
35. This language is consistent with that used on the official website of the provincial government: www.bali.go.id.
36. Erawan, "Kajian Strategi Pembangunan."
37. Erawan, the local sponsor of my initial field research in Bali in 1993-93, has remained a friend and colleague. In 2003 he organized and accompanied me on a trip into the mountains in search of old rice varieties. Despite our divergent views on development in Bali, I am grateful to him for his support in the past as well as our more recent conversations on which parts of this paper are based.
38. Tim Perumus, "Rumusan Pengkajian Strategi Pembangunan Ekonomi Propinsi Bali," draft proposal presented at a panel discussion, "Pengkajian Strategi Pembangunan Ekonomi Propinsi Bali," Denpasar, 13 June 2003, 5.
39. Ibid., 13-14.
40. Gorda, "Sumbangan Pemikiran" (see note 35 below).
41. Papers presented to panel discussion of "Rumusan Pengkajian Strategi Pmbangunan ekonomi Propinsi bali," Fakultas Ekonomi, Universitas Udayana, Denpasar, 1 June 2003: G.N. Gorda, "Sumbangan Pemikiran tentang Pengkajian Strategi Pembangunan Ekonomi Propinsi Bali";
42. Putu.Gede Ardhana, "Kajian Ekonomi Pembangunan";
43. Wayan Ardhika, "Pengkajian Strategi Pembangunan Ekonomi Bali";
44. Gede Suyatna, "Pokok-Pokok Bahasan terhadap Draf Rumusan Pengkajian Strategi Pembangunan Ekonomi Daerah Bali";
45. see also, "Kurangi Ketergantungan pada Pariwisata," Bali Post, 13 June 2003;
46. "Bali Perlu Industri Pengolahan Hasil Pertanian," Bali Post, 25 August 2003.
47. 'Agroindustri akan untuk Mengentaskan Kemiskinan," Bali Post, 3 September 1993;
48. "Dari Seminar Usaha Agrobisnis di NTB (2): Agrobisnis, Petani dan Subsidi," Bali Post, 21 December 1993;
49. "Pengembangan Agrobisnis di Petang Terbentur Jalan," Bali Post, 31 January 1994;
50. "Forum Bisnis 'Peluang Agrobisnis di Bali' (1): Setiap Orang Dikelilingi Peluang," Bali Post, 29 April 1994.
51. Anggito Abimanyu, "Impact of Agriculture Trade and Subsidy Policy on the Macroeconomy, Distribution, and Environment in Indonesia: A Strategy for Future Industrial Development," The Developing Economies 38, no. 4 (2000): 547-71.
52. Essentially the same contradiction was evident in Thai government policy for agriculture during the 1990s. See S. Sirisup and Hans-Dieter Kammeier, "Government Policy and Farmer's Decision-making: The Agricultural Diversification Programme for the Chao Phraya River Basin (1993-95) Revisited," in Thailand's Rice Bowl: Perspectives on Agricultural and Social Change in the Chao Phraya Delta, ed. Francois Molle and Thippawal Srijantr (Bangkok: White Lotus Press, 2003), 202.
53. She has since been elected to the national parliament.
54. I use the term "organic" more inclusively than some producers and consumers might prefer - to refer not to any particular system of certification, but the production aimed at reducing chemical residues to the minimum practicable. In practice, my position equates pretty much with abstaining from the use of artificial/chemical inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides.
55. "Serendipity and Parsnip," Bali Advertiser, 2002. Available on-line at http://www.baliadvertiser.biz/articles/greenspeak/ 2002/serendipity.html (accessed 20 January 2004).
56. Thomas Reuter, Custodians of the Sacred Mountains: Culture and Society in the Highlands of Bali (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002), 375.
57. This man has since left Golden Leaf and was, in mid-2004, setting up his own farm in partnership with C.V. Bening whose organic principles are more compatible with his own.
58. John Overton, "A Future in the Past? Seeking Sustainable Agriculture," in Strategies for Sustainable Development, ed. John Overton and Regina Scheyvens (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 1999).
59. The projects referred to here are the main ones I visited. There are others, including Ibu Kartini's long-standing vermiculture-based gardens in Denpasar, and Ed Dunk, an American expatriate who is growing padi cicih organically to prove to his neighbors that it makes economic sense. While my discussion here focuses on the significance of organic agriculture as a potentially economically viable alternative to the dominant model, I share with its proponents a belief in its advantages from health and environmental perspectives. It is worth noting also that recent research is beginning to indicate possible advantages in terms of productivity gains. See S.P. Kaler Surata, J.Stephen Lansing, I.W.Artha Artha Wiguna, and I.G.M.Oka Suprapta, "Response of Paddy to Reduction of Inorganic Fertilisers Apply [sic] in Bali," unpublished manuscr ipt, 2005.
60. Foley, "Agriculture and Tourism," 14.
61. Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution: Third World Agriculture, Ecology and Politics (London and New Jersey: Zed Books; Penang: Third World Network, 1991).
62. Michael Dove and Daniel Kammen, "The Epistemology of Sustainable Resource Use: Managing Forest, Swiddens and High-Yielding Variety Crops," Human Organisation 56, no. 1 (1997): 96;
63. J. Stephen Lansing, James Kremer, Vanda Gerhardt, Patricia Kremer, Alit Arthawiguna, SsngKaler Putu Surata, Suprapto, Ida Bagus Suryawan, IGusti.Arsana, Vernon Scarborough, John Schoenfelder, and Kimberly Mikita, "Volcanic Fertilisation of Balinese Rice Paddies," Ecological Economics 38, 2001, 383-90;
64. Shiva, Violence of the Green Revolution;
65. Lakshman Yapa, "What Are Improved Seeds? An Epistemology of the Green Revolution," Economic Geography 69, no. 3 (1993): 254-73.
66. Doug Porter and David Craig, "The Third Way and the Third World: Poverty Reduction and Social Inclusion Strategies in the Rise of 'Inclusive' Liberalism," Review of International Political Economy 11, no. 2 (2004): 399-420.
67. Ibid., 402.
68. I b i d.
69. Ibid., 404.
70. Erawan, "Kajian Strategi Pembangunan."
71. Ibid., 9-11.
72. Respectively, Ardhana, "Kajian Ekonomi Pembangunan," 7;
73. Suyatnya "Pokokpokok,"
74. Gorda "Sumbangan," 4.
75. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation), Indonesia, 2001, 2. Available on-line at http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y4632E/y4632e01.htm (accessed 16 December 2003).
76. World Bank, "Urban Infrastructure improvement in Indonesia," Press Release, no. 97/1341 (1997).
77. Jane Kelsey, "Indigenous and Peasant Farmers Mobilise in Cancun," WTO Bulletin, no. 2, 2003. Available on-line at http://www.scoop.co.nz/mason/stories/HL0309/S00080.htm (accessed 19 November 2003).
78. I b i d.
79. "The Final Sacrifice," New Zealand Herald, 20-21 September 2003, B18.
80. Various farmers groups. Cited in Kelsey, "Farmers Mobilise."
81. Federasi Serikat Petani Indonesia, KMP Philippines, Rede de Ecological Social Amigos de la Tierra Uruguay, Assembly of the Poor Thailand, Northern Peasants Federation Thailand, Focus on the Global South, "Sustainable Development Is Not Possible Unless the Rights of Peasants and Small Farmers Are Guaranteed." Statement on the occasion of the Fourth Preparatory Committee Meeting for the World Summit for Social Development (WSSD), Bali, 4 June 2002. Available on-line at http://www.focusweb.org/publications/declarations/ Balipercent20FSPI-Focuspercent20statement.htm.
82. One of the ironies of this story is that these alternative visions, including the return to traditional methods, have been initiated by expatriates or businessman-farmers rather than by the ordinary farmers who have the most pressing need for them. I have, in mid-2004, yet to find any farmer-led initiatives in Bali, but there are some in the neighboring island of Java. The reasons for this are another paper.
83. This discussion is, as a reviewer for Critical Asian Studies pointed out, "rather light" in terms of the substantial literature on trade and development issues, including Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs). My point however is not to critique PRSPs but simply to highlight the parallels between the sets of contradictions inherent in current global development orthodoxies and in specific policy direction for Indonesian agriculture.
84. Dove and Kammen, "Epistemology," 92.
85. I b i d.
86. Graeme MacRae, "Economy, Ritual and History in Balinese Tourist Town," PhD diss. (University of Auckland, 1997), 421-25.
87. James Boon, The Anthropological Romance of Bali (London: Cambridge University Press, 1977).
88. Mark Hobart, The Search for Sustenance: The Peasant Economy of a Balinese Village and Its Cultural Implications (Denpasar: Jurusan Anthropologi, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Udayana, 1980);
89. Lansing, Priests and Programmers.
90. Leo Howe, "Rice, Ideology and the Legitimation of Hierarchy in Bali," Man 26 (1991): 453 and 458.
91. MacRae, "Economy, Ritual and History," 443.
92. MacRae, "Economy, Ritual and History," 330-32, 388-89.
93. Ibid., 376-77.
94. Henk Schulte-Nordholt, The Spell of Power: A History of Balinese Politics (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1996), 109.
95. MacRae, "Economy, Ritual and History," 429-33.
96. Shiva, Violence;
97. Dove and Kammen, "Epistemology," 92.
98. Lansing, Priests and Programmers.
99. Mark Poffenberger and Mary Zurbachen, "The Economics of Village Bali: Three Perspectives," Economic Development and Cultural Change 29, no. 1 (1980): 97-107.
100. URL: www.idepfoundation.org.
101. Dove and Kammen, "Epistemology," 99.
102. Juniarsa, "Festival."
103. "Petani di Gianyar Diarahkan Produksi Padi Organik: antisipasi kelangkaan pupuk," Bali Post, 2 February 2004.
104. Dinas Pertanian Kabupaten Gianyar, "Laporan Kegiatan DemFarm Perintasan Teknologi Pupuk Organik pada Budidaya Tanaman Padi Organik di Kabupaten Gianyar," internal government report, 2004).
105. S. Martawijaya and Roger Montgomery, "Bureaucrats as Entrepreneurs: A Case Study of Organic Rice Production in East Java," Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies 40, no. 2 (2004): 243-52.
106. "Deptan Tetap Inginkan Subsudi Pupuk," Kompas, 31 August 2004.