The German view: Effects of nitrogen dioxide on human health - Derivation of health-related short-term and long-term values

International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health

Volumn 208, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 305-318

  Kraft, Martin ^a,i   Eikmann, Thomas ^b   Kappos, Andreas ^c   Künzli, Nino ^d   Rapp, Regula ^e   Schneider, Klaus ^f   Seitz, Heike ^b   Voss, Jens Uwe ^g   Wichmann, H Erich ^h  

^a Ministry of the Environment and Conservation   (Germany)

^b JUSTUS LIEBIG UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^c Environmental and Health Office   (Germany)

^d UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^e SWISS TROPICAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH INSTITUTE   (Switzerland)

^f Research Institute and Consultants for Hazardous Substances   (Germany)

^g Toxicological Advisory Services   (Germany)

^h INSTITUTE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY   (Germany)

ⁱ Ministerium fur Umwelt und Naturschutz   (Germany)

Author keywords

Air pollution; Effect concentration; Long term exposure; Nitrogen dioxide; Respiratory system; Short term exposure

Indexed keywords

NITROGEN DIOXIDE;

AIR POLLUTANT; AMBIENT AIR; ASTHMA; BRONCHUS HYPERREACTIVITY; CARCINOGENICITY; CHRONIC BRONCHITIS; COUGHING; DYSPNEA; EXPECTATION; GENOTOXICITY; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HUMAN; LONG TERM EXPOSURE; LUNG CANCER; NONHUMAN; OBSERVATION; PROPHYLAXIS; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; REVIEW; STANDARD; WHEEZING;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 20444467384     PISSN: 14384639     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2005.04.002     Document Type: Article

References (122)

1. D.E. Abbey, S.D. Colome, P.K. Mills, R. Burchette, W.L. Beeson, and Y. Tian Chronic disease associated with long-term concentration of nitrogen dioxide J. Exp. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 3 2 1993 181 202
2. D.E. Abbey, N. Nishino, W.F. McDonnell, R. Burchette, S.F. Knutsen, W.L. Beeson, and Y. Tian Long-term inhalable particles and other air pollutants related to mortality in nonsmokers Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 159 1999 373 382
3. U. Ackermann-Liebrich, P. Leuenberger, J. Schwartz, C. Schindler, C. Monn, G. Bolognini, and J.P. Bongard Lung function and long term exposure to air pollutants in Switzerland Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155 1997 122 129
4. H.R. Anderson, A. Ponce de Leon, J.M. Bland, J.S. Bower, and D.P. Strachan Air pollution and daily mortality in London: 1987-92 Br. Med. J. 312 7032 1996 665 669
5. H.R. Anderson, C. Spix, S. Medina, J.P. Schouten, J. Castellsague, G. Rossi, and D. Zmirou Air pollution and daily admissions for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 6 European cities: results from the APHEA project Eur. Respir. J. 10 1997 1064 1071
6. H.R. Anderson, A. Ponce de Leon, J.M. Bland, J.S. Bower, J. Emberlin, and D.P. Strachan Air pollution, pollens, and daily admissions for asthma in London 1987-92 Thorax 53 10 1998 842 848
7. R.W. Atkinson, S.A. Bremner, H.R. Anderson, D.P. Strachan, J.M. Bland, and A.P. de Leon Short-term associations between emergency hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiovascular disease and outdoor air pollution in London Arch. Environ. Health 54 6 1999 398 411
8. R.W. Atkinson, H.R. Anderson, D.P. Strachan, J.M. Bland, S.A. Bremner, and A. Ponce de Leon Short-term associations between outdoor air pollution and visits to accident and emergency departments in London for respiratory complaints Eur. Respir. J. 13 2 1999 257 265
9. I. Baldi, J.F. Tessier, F. Kauffmann, H. Jacqmin-Gadda, C. Nejjari, and R. Salamon Prevalence of asthma and mean levels of air pollution: results from the French PAARC survey Eur. Respir. J. 14 1999 132 138
10. W.L. Beeson, D.E. Abbey, and S.F. Knutsen Long-term concentrations of ambient air pollutants and incident lung cancer in California adults: results from the ASHMOG study Environ. Health Perspect. 106 12 1998 813 823
11. M. Berglund, C.E. Boström, G. Bylin, L. Ewetz, L. Gustafsson, P. Moldens, G. Pershagen, and K. Victorin Health risk evaluation of nitrogen oxides Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 19 Suppl. 2 1993 1 72
12. D.K. Bhalla Oxidative effects and inflammatory responses in the lung J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 61 2000 3 8
13. A. Blomberg, M.T. Krishna, R. Helleday, M. Söderberg, M.C. Ledin, F.J. Kelly, and A.J. Frew Persistent airway inflammation but accommodated antioxidant and lung function responses after repeated daily exposure to nitrogen dioxide Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 159 1999 536 543
14. H.M. Boezen, S.C. van der Zee, D.S. Postma, J.M. Vonk, J. Gerritsen, G. Hoek, and B. Brunekreef Effects of ambient air pollution on upper and lower respiratory symptoms and peak expiratory flow in children Lancet 353 1999 874 878
15. C. Braun-Fahrländer, L. Grize-Zertuche, and J. Vuille Schlussbericht SCARPOL zu Händen des Schweizerischen Nationalfonds. Schweizer Studie über Atemwegserkrankungen und Allergien bei Schulkindern: der Einfluss der Umweltfaktoren Luftqualität 1995 Klima, Pollen Basel/Bern
16. C. Braun-Fahrländer, J.C. Vuille, F.H. Sennhauser, U. Neu, T. Künzle, L. Grize, and M. Gassner Respiratory health and long-term exposure to air pollutants in Swiss schoolchildren Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155 1997 1042 1049
17. S.A. Bremner, H.R. Anderson, R.W. Atkinson, A.J. McMichael, D.P. Strachan, and J.M. Bland Short-term associations between outdoor air pollution and mortality in London 1992-1994 Occup. Environ. Med. 56 4 1999 237 244
18. B. Brunekreef, N.A.H. Janssen, J. de Hartog, H. Harssema, M. Knape, and P. van Vliet Air pollution from truck traffic and lung function in children living near motorways Epidemiology 8 1996 298 303
19. R.T. Burnett, S. Cakmak, and J.R. Brook The effect of the urban ambient air pollution mix on daily mortality rates in 11 Canadian cities Can. J. Public Health 89 3 1998 152 156
20. M.J. Campbell, and A. Tobias Causality and temporality in the study of short-term effects of air pollution on health Int. J. Epidemiol. 29 2 2000 271 273
21. J. Castellsague, J. Sunyer, M. Saez, and J.M. Anto Short-term association between air pollution and emergency room visits for asthma in Barcelona Thorax 50 10 1995 1051 1056
22. P. Chitano, J.J. Hosselet, C.E. Mapp, and L.M. Fabbri Effect of oxidant air pollutants on the respiratory system: insights from experimental animal research Eur. Respir. J. 8 1995 1357 1371
23. W. Dab, S. Medina, P. Quenel, Y. Le Moullec, A. Le Tertre, B. Thelot, and C. Monteil Short term respiratory health effects of ambient air pollution: results of the APHEA project in Paris J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 50 Suppl. 1 1996 42 46
24. R.J. Delfino, R.S. Zeiger, J.M. Seltzer, D.H. Street, and C.E. McLaren Association of asthma symptoms with peak particulate air pollution and effect modification by anti-inflammatory medication use Environ. Health Perspect. 100 10 2002 A607 A617
25. R.J. Delfino, H. Gong, W.S. Linn, Y. Hu, and E.D. Pellizzari Respiratory symptoms and peak expiratory flow in children with asthma in relation to volatile organic compounds in exhaled breath and ambient air J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 13 5 2003 348 363
26. J.L. Devalia, C. Rusznak, M.J. Herman, C.J. Trigg, H. Tarraf, and R.J. Davies Effect of nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide on airway response of mild asthmatic patients to allergen inhalation Lancet 344 1994 1668 1671
27. D.W. Dockery, F.E. Speizer, D.O. Stram, J.H. Ware, J.D. Spengler, and B.G. Ferris Effects of inhaled particles on respiratory health of children Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 139 1989 587 594
28. D.W. Dockery, A.C. Pope, X. Xu, J.D. Spengler, J.H. Ware, M.E. Fay, B.G. Ferris, and F.E. Speizer An association between air pollution and mortality in six US cities N. Engl. J. Med. 329 24 1993 1753 1759
29. Y.G. Feldman The combined action on a human body of a mixture of the main components of motor traffic exhaust gases (carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, formaldehyde and hexane) Gigiene i Sanitarija 10 1974 7 10
30. L.J. Folinsbee Does nitrogen dioxide exposure increase airways responsiveness? Toxicol. Ind. Health 8 5 1992 273 283
31. B. Forsberg, N. Stjernberg, and S. Wall Prevalence of respiratory and hyperreactivity symptoms in relation to levels of criteria air pollutants in Sweden Eur. J. Public Health 7 3 1997 291 296
32. D.E. Gardner Influence of exposure patterns of nitrogen dioxide on susceptibility to infectious respiratory disease S.D. Lee Nitrogen Oxides and Their Effects on Health 1980 Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc. Michigan 267 288
33. W.J. Gauderman, R. McConnell, F. Gilliland, S. London, D. Thomas, E. Avol, and H. Vora Association between air pollution and lung function growth in southern California children Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162 2000 1383 1390
34. U. Gehring, J. Cyrys, G. Sedlmeier, B. Brunekreef, T. Bellander, P. Fischer, and C.P. Bauer Traffic-related air pollution and respiratory health during the first 2 yrs of life Eur. Respir. J. 19 2002 690 698
35. T.R. Gelzleichter, H. Witschi, and J.A. Last Synergistic interaction of nitrogen dioxide and ozone on rat lungs: acute responses Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 116 1992 1 9
36. J.A. Hagen, P. Nafstad, A. Skrondal, S. Bjorkly, and P. Magnus Associations between outdoor air pollutants and hospitalization for respiratory diseases Epidemiology 11 2 2000 136 140
37. D. Hattis, A. Russ, R. Goble, B. Banati, and M. Chu Human interindividual variability in susceptibility to airborne particles Risk Anal. 21 2001 585 600
38. D. Henschler, A. Stier, H. Beck, and W. Neumann Geruchsschwellen einiger wichtiger Reizgase (Schwefeldioxyd) und Erscheinungen bei der Einwirkung geringer Konzentrationen auf den Menschen Arch. Gewerbepath. Gewerbehyg. 17 1960 547 570
39. T. Hirsch, S.K. Weiland, E. von Mutius, A.F. Safeca, H. Gräfe, E. Csaplovics, and H. Duhme Inner city air pollution and respiratory health and atopy in children Eur. Respir. J. 14 1999 669 677
40. G. Hoek, B. Brunekreef, S. Goldbohm, P. Fischer, and P.A. van den Brandt Association between mortality and indicators of traffic-related air pollution in the Netherlands: a cohort study Lancet 360 2002 1203 1209
41. H. Hoshi, K. Yamauchi, K. Sekizawa, Y. Ohkawara, H. Iijima, E. Sakurai, and K. Maeda Nitrogen dioxide exposure increases airway contractile response to histamine by decreasing histamine N-methyltransferase activity in guinea pigs Am. J. Resp. Cell Mol. Biol. 14 1996 76 83
42. T. Ichinose, K. Fujii, and M. Sagai Experimental studies on tumor promotion by nitrogen dioxide Toxicology 67 1991 211 225
43. K. Isomura, M. Chikahira, K. Tetranishi, and K. Hamada Induction of mutations and chromosome aberrations in lung cells following in vivo exposure of rats to nitrogen oxides Mutat. Res. 136 1984 119 125
44. H.S. Jenkins, J.L. Devalia, R.L. Mister, A.M. Bevan, C. Rusznak, and R.J. Davies The effects of exposure to ozone and nitrogen dioxide on the airway response of atopic asthmatics to inhaled allergen. Dose- and time-dependent effects Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 160 1999 33 39
45. J. Just, C. Segala, F. Sahraoui, G. Priol, A. Grimfeld, and F. Neukirch Short-term health effects of particulate and photochemical air pollution in asthmatic children Eur. Respir. J. 20 2002 899 906
46. Y. Kakinoki, Y. Ohashi, A. Tanaka, Y. Washio, K. Yamada, Y. Nakai, and K. Morimoto Nitrogen dioxide compromises defence functions of the airway epithelium Acta Otolaryngol. 538 Suppl. 1998 221 226
47. H. Kan, and B. Chen A case-crossover analysis of air pollution and daily mortality in Shanghai J. Occup. Health 45 2 2003 119 124
48. P.L. Kinney, and H. Ozkaynak Associations of daily mortality and air pollution in Los Angeles County Environ. Res. 54 2 1991 99 120
49. Kleinman, M.T., Mautz, W.J., 1987. The effects of exercise on respiratory tract dosimetry for inhaled gaseous pollutants. Presented at the 80th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (Paper No. 87-33.5).
50. D. Krewski, R. Burnett, L. Goldberg, K. Hoover, J. Siemiatycki, M. Jerret, and M. Abrahamowicz Reanalysis of the Harvard Six Cities Study and the American Cancer Society Study of Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality: A Special Report of the Institute's Particle Epidemiology Reanalysis Project - Final Version 2000 Health Effects Institute Cambridge, MA, USA
51. K. Kubota, M. Murakami, S. Takenaka, K. Kawai, and H. Kyono Effects of long-term nitrogen dioxide exposure on rat lung: morphological observations Environ. Health Perspect. 73 1987 157 169
52. Künzli, N., Kaiser, R., Rapp, R., Ackermann-Liebrich, U., 1996. Teilbericht Epidemiologie des Projektes zur Erfassung der durch die verkehrsbedingte Luftverschmutzung entstehenden Gesundheitskosten. Teil-Projekt des Instituts für Sozial- und Präventivmedizin, Basel (Leitung: Prof. Ursula Ackermann-Liebrich, im Auftrag des Dienstes für Gesamtverkehrsfragen im Generalsekretariat des Eidgenössischen Verkehrs- und Energiedepartements (GVF) Bern), Basel.
53. Künzli, N., Kaiser, R., Seethaler, R., 2001. Kap.III-1.5.2, Quantitative Risikoabschätzung - Luft. In: Wichmann, Schlipköter, Füllgraf (Eds.), Handbuch Umweltmedizin. 22. Erg.-Lfg., 2001.
54. J.A. Last, T.R. Gelzleichter, K.E. Pinkerton, R.M. Walker, and H. Witschi A new model of progressive pulmonary fibrosis in rats Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 148 1993 487 494
55. Lenz, H.P., Prüller, S., 2003. Emissionen und Immissionen von Abgaskomponenten. In: Fortschritt-Berichte Verkehrstechnik/Fahrzeugtechnik, Nr. 528, VDI-Verlag.
56. W.S. Linn, and H. Gong Jr. The 21st century environment and air quality influences on asthma Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 5 1 1999 21 26
57. H. Magnussen, D. Nowak, and R. Jörres Experimentelle Schadstoffeffekte bei Gesunden und Asthmatikern Pneumologie 48 1994 85 88
58. R. McConnell, K. Berhane, F. Gilliland, S.J. London, H. Vora, E. Avol, and W.J. Gauderman Air pollution and bronchitic symptoms in southern california children with asthma Environ. Health Perspect. 107 9 1999 757 760
59. R. McConnell, K. Berhane, F. Gilliland, J. Molitor, D. Thomas, F. Lurmann, and E. Avol Prospective study of air pollution and bronchitic symptoms in children with asthma Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 168 2003 790 797
60. Medina, S., Le Tertre, A., Dusseux, E., Camard, J.P., 1997a. ERPURS: Analyse des liens à court terme entre pollution atmosphérique et santé. Observatoire régional de santé d'Ile-de-France, Paris, pp. 1-101.
61. S. Medina, A. Le Tertre, P. Quenel, Y. Le Moullec, P. Lameloise, J.C. Guzzo, and B. Festy Air pollution and doctors' house calls: results from the ERPURS system for monitoring the effects of air pollution on public health in Greater Paris, France, 1991-1995. Evaluation des risques de la pollution urbaine pour la sante Environ. Res. 75 1 1997 73 84
62. P. Michelozzi, F. Forastiere, D. Fusco, C.A. Perucci, B. Ostro, C. Ancona, and G. Pallotti Air pollution and daily mortality in Rome, Italy Occup. Environ. Med. 55 9 1998 605 610
63. F.J. Miller, J.H. Overton, E.T. Myers, and J.A. Graham Pulmonary dosimetry of nitrogen dioxide in animals and man R. Schneider L. Grant Air Pollution by Nitrogen Oxides 1982 Elsevier Amsterdam 377 386
64. G. Morgan, S. Corbett, J. Wlodarczyk, and P. Lewis Air pollution and daily mortality in Sydney, Australia, 1989 through 1993 Am. J. Publ. Health 88 1998 759 764
65. G. Morgan, S. Corbett, and J. Wlodarczyk Air pollution and hospital admissions in Sydney, Australia, 1990 to 1994 Am. J. Publ. Health 88 12 1998 1761 1766
66. P.E. Morrow, M.J. Utell, M.A. Bauer, A.M. Smeglin, M.W. Frampton, C. Cox, D.M. Speers, and F.R. Gibb Pulmonary performance of elderly normal subjects and subjects with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exposed to 0.3 ppm nitrogen dioxide Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 145 1992 291 300
67. 2 air pollution on the lung function of children with asthmatic symptoms Environ. Res. 67 1994 109 124
68. Mücke, H.-G., Wagner, H.M., 1998. Anorganische Gase/ Stickstoffdioxid, Kap. VI-1. In: Wichmann, H.E., Schlipköter, H.-W., Fülgraff, G. (Eds.), Handbuch der Umweltmedizin. Toxikologie, Epidemiologie, Hygiene, Belastungen, Wirkungen, Diagnostik, Prophylaxe. 14. Erg. Lfg. 10/98, ecomed Verlag Landsberg.
69. P. Nafstad, L.L. Haheim, B. Oftedal, F. Gram, I. Holme, I. Hjermann, and P. Leren Lung cancer and air pollution: a 27 year follow up of 16 209 Norwegian men Thorax 58 2003 1071 1076
70. P. Nafstad, L. Håheim, T. Wisloeff, F. Gram, B. Oftedal, I. Holme, I. Hjermann, and P. Leren Urban air pollution and mortality in a cohort of Norwegian men Environ. Health Perspect. 112 2004 610 615
71. S. Nakai, H. Nitta, and K. Maeda Respiratory health associated with exposure to automobile exhaust. III. Results of a cross-sectional study in 1987, and repeated pulmonary function tests from 1987-1990 Arch. Environ. Health 54 1 1999 26 33
72. M. Neuberger, M. Kundi, and M. Haider Combined effects of outdoor and indoor air pollution on lung functions of school children ACES 7 1-2 1995 7 11
73. Neuberger, M., Kundi, M., Hager, W., Krejci, W., Wiesenberger, W., 1998. Longitudinal study on effects of air quality on lung function growth. In: Air quality 11th world clean air and environment congress (Proceedings of the IUAPPA). Durban, South Africa 5, 14B-2, pp. 1-6.
74. T. Nicolai, D. Carr, S.K. Weiland, H. Duhme, O. von Ehrenstein, C. Wagner, and E. von Mutius Urban traffic and pollutant exposure related to respiratory outcomes and atopy in a large sample of children Eur. Respir. J. 21 6 2003 956 963
75. NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health RTECS, Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances 2001 CD-ROM-Datenbank Silver Platter, USA
76. F. Nyberg, P. Gustavsson, L. Järup, T. Bellander, N. Berglind, R. Jakobsson, and G. Pershagen Urban air pollution and lung cancer in Stockholm Epidemiology 11 2000 487 495
77. Y. Ohashi, Y. Nakai, Y. Sugiura, Y. Ohno, and H. Okamoto Nitrogen dioxide-induced eosinophilia and mucosal injury in the trachea of the guinea pig J. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol. Relat. Special 55 1993 36 40
78. Y. Ohashi, Y. Nakai, Y. Sugiura, Y. Ohno, H. Okamoto, A. Tanaka, Y. Kakinoki, and M. Hayashi Nitrogen dioxide-induced eosinophilia and mucosal injury in the nose of the guinea pig Acta Otolaryngol. 114 1994 547 551
79. 2 exposure on rat lung tumorigenesis Cancer Lett. 139 1999 189 197
80. J. Orehek, J.P. Massari, P. Gayard, C. Grimaud, and J. Charpin Effect of short-term, low-level nitrogen dioxide exposure on bronchial sensitivity of asthmatic patients J. Clin. Invest. 57 1976 301 307
81. B. Ostro, M. Lippsett, J. Mann, H. Braxton-Owens, and M. White Air pollution and exacerbation of asthma in African-American children in Los Angeles Epidemiology 12 2 2001 200 208
82. A. Papi, S. Amadesi, P. Chitano, P. Boschetto, A. Ciaccia, P. Geppetti, L.M. Fabri, and C.E. Mapp Bronchopulmonary inflammation and airway smooth muscle hyperresponsiveness induced by nitrogen dioxide in guinea pigs Eur. J. Pharmacol. 374 1999 241 247
83. J.M. Peters, E. Avol, W.J. Gauderman, W.S. Linn, W. Navidi, S.J. London, and H. Margolis A study of twelve southern California communities with differing levels and types of air pollution. II. Effects on pulmonary function Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 159 1999 768 775
84. C.A. Pope, M.J. Thun, M.M. Namboodiri, D.W. Dockery, J.S. Evans, F.E. Speizer, and C.W. Heath Particulate air pollution as a predictor of mortality in a prospective study of US adults Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 151 1995 669 674
85. C.A. Pope, R.T. Burnett, M.J. Thun, E.E. Calle, D. Krewski, K. Ito, and G.D. Thurston Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution J. Am. Med. Assoc. 287 2002 1132 1141
86. E.M. Postlethwait, and A. Bidani Reactive uptake governs the pulmonary air space removal of inhaled nitrogen dioxide J. Appl. Physiol. 68 1990 594 603
87. 3 und Tabakrauch) 1990 Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH
88. W. Roemer, G. Hoek, B. Brunekreef, J. Haluszka, A. Kalandidi, and J. Pekkanen Daily variations in air pollution and respiratory health in a multicentre study: the PEACE project. Pollution Effects on Asthmatic Children in Europe Eur. Respir. J. 12 1998 1354 1361
89. W. Roemer, J. Clench-Aas, N. Englert, G. Hoek, K. Katsouyanni, J. Pekkanen, and B. Brunekreef Inhomogeneity in response to air pollution in European children (PEACE project) Occup. Environ. Med. 56 1999 86 92
90. M.C. Roorda-Knape, N.A.H. Janssen, J.J. De Hartog, P.H.N. van Vliet, H. Harssema, and B. Brunekreef Air pollution from traffic in city districts near major motorways Atmos. Environ. 32 1998 1921 1930
91. G. Rossi, M.A. Vigotti, A. Zanobetti, F. Repetto, V. Gianelle, and J. Schwartz Air pollution and cause-specific mortality in Milan, Italy, 1980-1989 Arch. Environ. Health. 54 3 1999 158 164
92. 2 Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 73 1984 444 456
93. P.H. Saldiva, A.J. Lichtenfels, P.S. Paiva, I.A. Barone, M.A. Martins, E. Massad, and J.C. Pereira Association between air pollution and mortality due to respiratory diseases in children in Sao Paulo, Brazil: a preliminary report Environ. Res. 65 2 1994 218 225
94. E. Samoli, G. Touloumi, A. Zanobetti, A. Le Tertre, C. Schindler, R. Atkinson, and J. Vonk Investigating the dose-response relation between air pollution and total mortality in the APHEA-2 multicity project Occup. Environ. Med. 60 12 2003 977 982
95. J. Schwartz Lung Function and Chronic Exposure to Air Pollution: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of NHANES II Environ. Res. 50 1998 309 321
96. O.P. Shalamberidze Reflex effects of mixtures of sulfur and nitrogen dioxide Gigiena i Sanitaria 32 1967 10 15
97. C.M. Shy, J.P. Creason, M.E. Pearlman, K.E. Mc Clain, F.B. Benson, and M.M. Young The Chattanooga schoolchildren study: Effects of community exposure to nitrogen dioxide 2. Incidence of acute respiratory illness J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 20 9 1970 582 588
98. R. Simpson, L. Denison, A. Petroeschevsky, L. Thalib, and G. Williams Effects of ambient particle pollution on daily mortality in Melbourne, 1991-1996 J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 10 5 2000 488 496
99. S.M. Smith, J.H. Stuhmiller, and A.J. Januszkiewicz Evaluation of lethality estimates for combustion gases in military scenarios Toxicology 115 1996 157 165
100. D.M. Stieb, S. Judek, and R.T. Burnett Meta-analysis of time-series studies of air pollution and mortality: effects of gases and particles and the influence of cause of death, age, and season J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 52 2002 470 484
101. D.M. Stieb, S. Judek, and R.T. Burnett Meta-analysis of time-series studies of air pollution and mortality: update in relation to the use of generalized additive models J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 53 2003 258 261
102. V. Strand, P. Salomonsson, J. Lundahl, and G. Bylin Immediate and delayed effects of nitrogen dioxide exposure at an ambient level on bronchial responsiveness to histamine in subjects with asthma Eur. Respir. J. 9 1996 733 740
103. V. Strand, S. Rak, M. Svartengren, and G. Bylin Nitrogen dioxide exposure enhances asthmatic reaction to inhaled allergen in subjects with asthma Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155 1997 881 887
104. 2 enhances asthmatic response to a nonsymptomatic allergen dose Eur. Respir. J. 12 1998 6 12
105. J. Sunyer, J. Castellsague, M. Saez, A. Tobias, and J.M. Anto Air pollution and mortality in Barcelona J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 50 Suppl. 1 1996 76 80
106. M. Svartengren, V. Strand, G. Bylin, L. Järup, and G. Pershagen Short-term exposure to air pollution in a road tunnel enhances the asthmatic response to allergen Eur. Respir. J. 15 2000 716 724
107. D.P. Tashkin, R. Detels, M. Simmons, H. Liu, A.H. Coulson, J. Sayre, and S. Rokaw The UCLA population studies of chronic obstructive respiratory disease: XI. Impact of air pollution and smoking on annual change in forced expiratory volume in one second Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 149 1994 1209 1217
108. J.M. Tenias, F. Ballester, and M.L. Rivera Association between hospital emergency visits for asthma and air pollution in Valencia, Spain Occup. Environ. Med. 55 8 1998 541 547
109. P.E. Tolbert, J.A. Mulholland, D.L. MacIntosh, F. Xu, D. Daniels, O.J. Devine, B.P. Carlin, M. Klein, J. Dorley, A.J. Butler, D.F. Nordenberg, H. Frumkin, P.B. Ryan, and M.C. White Air quality and pediatric emergency room visits for asthma in Atlanta, Georgia, USA Am. J. Epidemiol. 151 8 2000 798 810
110. G. Touloumi, K. Katsouyanni, D. Zmirou, J. Schwartz, C. Spix, A.P. de Leon, A. Tobias, P. Quenel, D. Rabczenko, L. Bacharova, L. Bisanti, J.M. Vonk, and A. Pönkä Short-term effects of ambient oxidant exposure on mortality: a combined analysis within the APHEA project. Air pollution and health: a European approach Am. J. Epidemiol. 146 2 1997 177 185
111. W.S. Tunnicliffe, P.S. Burge, and J.G. Ayres Effect of domestic concentrations of nitrogen dioxide on airway responses to inhaled allergen in asthmatic patients Lancet 344 1994 1733 1736
112. UBA (Umweltbundesamt) Umweltdaten Deutschland 2002 Umweltbundesamt Berlin
113. 2-induced generation of extracellular reactive oxygen is mediated by epithelial lining layer antioxidants Am. J. Physiol. 273 1997 L1265 L1275
114. S.A. Walles, K. Victorin, and M. Lundborg DNA damage in lung cells in vivo and in vitro by 1,3-butadiene and nitrogen dioxide and their photochemical reaction products Mutat. Res. 328 1995 11 19
115. WHO, World Health Organization, 1997. Environmental Health Criteria 188, Nitrogen Oxides, second ed. IPCS, International Programme on Chemical Safety; World Health Organization, Geneva.
116. WHO, World Health Organization, 2000. Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. WHO Regional Publications, European Series, No. 91.
117. WHO, World Health Organization: Health Aspects of Air Pollution with Particulate Matter, Ozone and Nitrogen Dioxide. Report, Bonn, Germany, 13-15 January 2003.
118. V. Wietlisbach, C.A. Pope III, and U. Ackermann-Liebrich Air pollution and daily mortality in three Swiss urban areas Soz. Praventivmed. 41 2 1996 107 115
119. S.C. Yang, and S.P. Yang Respiratory function changes from inhalation of polluted air Arch. Environ. Health 49 3 1994 182 187
120. 2 by the isolated upper airways Bull. Inst. Public Health 17 1968 302 306
121. E. Zemp, S. Elsasser, C. Schindler, N. Künzli, A.P. Perruchoud, Ph. Leuenberger, and C. Monn Long-term ambient air pollution and respiratory symptoms in adults Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 159 1999 1257 1266
122. D. Zmirou, J. Schwartz, M. Saez, A. Zanobetti, B. Wojtyniak, G. Touloumi, and C. Spix Time-series analysis of air pollution and cause-specific mortality Epidemiology 9 1998 495 503