The amphibian decline crisis: A watershed for conservation biology?

Biological Conservation

Volumn 125, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 271-285

  Beebee, Trevor J C ^a   Griffiths, Richard A ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF KENT   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Amphibian populations; Decline causes; Outstanding problems

Indexed keywords

AMPHIBIAN; BIOINDICATOR; CONSERVATION; HABITAT LOSS; POPULATION DECLINE;

AMPHIBIA; AVES; MAMMALIA;

EID: 20444419403     PISSN: 00063207     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2005.04.009     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. M.A. Alexander, and J.K. Eischeid Climate variability in regions of amphibian declines Conservation Biology 15 2001 930 942
2. R.A. Alford, and S.J. Richards Global amphibian declines: a problem in applied ecology Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 30 1999 133 165
3. R.A. Alford, P.M. Dixon, and J.H.K. Pechmann Global amphibian population declines Nature 412 2001 499 500
4. J.W. Arntzen, and R.S. Thorpe Italian crested newts (Triturus carnifex) in the basin of Geneva: distribution and genetic interactions with autochthonous species Herpetologica 55 1999 423 433
5. J.D. Austin, S.C. Lougheed, and B.T. Boag Controlling for the effects of history and non-equilibrium conditions in gene flow estimates in northern bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) populations Genetics 168 2004 1491 1506
6. T.J.C. Beebee Amphibian decline? Nature 355 1992 120
7. T.J.C. Beebee Amphibian breeding and climate Nature 374 1995 219 220
8. T.J.C. Beebee, and G. Rowe Application of genetic bottleneck testing to the investigation of amphibian declines: a case study with natterjack toads Conservation Biology 15 2001 266 270
9. L. Berger, R. Speare, P. Daszak, E. Green, A.A. Cunningham, C.L. Goggin, R. Slocombe, M.A. Ragan, A.D. Hyatt, K.R. McDonald, H.B. Hines, K.R. Lips, G. Marantelli, and H. Parkes Chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of Australia and Central America Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 95 1998 9031 9036
10. K.A. Berven, and T.A. Grudzien Dispersal in the wood frog (Rana sylvatica): implications for genetic population structure Evolution 44 1990 2047 2056
11. R. Biek, C.W. Funk, B.A. Maxell, and S.L. Mills What is missing in amphibian decline research: insights from ecological sensitivity analysis Conservation Biology 16 2002 728 734
12. A.R. Blaustein, and J.M. Keisecker Complexity in conservation: lessons from the global decline of amphibian populations Ecology Letters 5 2002 597 608
13. A.R. Blaustein, and D.B. Wake Declining amphibian populations: a global phenomenon Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5 1990 203 204
14. A.R. Blaustein, D.B. Wake, and W.P. Sousa Amphibian declines: judging stability, persistence, and susceptibility of populations to local and global extinctions Conservation Biology 8 1994 60 71
15. A.R. Blaustein, J.M. Romansic, J.M. Kiesecker, and A.C. Hatch Ultraviolet radiation, toxic chemicals and amphibian population declines Diversity and Distributions 9 2003 123 140
16. A.R. Blaustein, D.H. Belden, D.M. Olson, D.M. Green, T.L. Root, and J.M. Kiesecker Amphibian breeding and climate change Conservation Biology 15 2001 1804 1809
17. A.R. Blaustein, P.D. Hoffman, D.G. Hokit, J.M. Kiesecker, S.C. Walls, and J.B. Hays UV repair and resistance to solar UV-B in amphibian eggs; A link to population declines? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 91 1994 1791 1795
18. M.S. Boyce, and L.L. McDonald Relating populations to habitats using resource selection functions Trends in Ecology and Evolution 14 1999 268 272
19. E.G. Brede, and T.J.C. Beebee Contrasting population structure in two sympatric anurans: implications for species conservation Heredity 92 2004 110 117
20. E.G. Brede, R.S. Thorpe, J.W. Arntzen, and T.E.S. Langton A morphometric study of a hybrid newt population (Triturus cristatus/T. carnifex): Beam Brook Nurseries, Surrey, UK Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 70 2000 685 695
21. A.S. Bridges, and M.E. Dorcas Temporal variation in anuran calling behaviour: implications for surveys and monitoring programs Copeia 2000 2000 587 592
22. J. Buckley, and T.J.C. Beebee Monitoring the conservation status of an endangered amphibian: the natterjack toad Bufo calamita in Britain Animal Conservation 7 2004 221 228
23. T.M. Caro, and G. O'Doherty On the use of surrogate species in conservation biology Conservation Biology 13 1999 805 814
24. C. Carey, and M.A. Alexander Climate change and amphibian declines: is there a link? Diversity and Distributions 9 2003 111 121
25. G. Caughley Directions in conservation biology Journal of Animal Ecology 63 1994 215 244
26. J.P. Collins, and A. Storfer Global amphibian declines: sorting the hypotheses Diversity and Distributions 9 2003 89 98
27. J.P. Collins, J.L. Brunner, J.K. Jancovich, and D.M. Schock A model host-pathogen system for studying infectious disease dynamics in amphibians: tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum) and Ambystoma tigrinum virus Herpetological Journal 14 2004 195 200
28. A.S. Cooke A comparison of survey methods for crested newts (Triturus cristatus) and night counts at a secure site, 1983-1993 Herpetological Journal 5 1995 221 228
29. B.R. Coppedge, D.M. Engle, R.E. Masters, and M.S. Gregory Avian response to landscape change in fragmented southern Great Plains grasslands Ecological Applications 11 2001 47 59
30. J.M. Cornuet, and G. Luikart Description and power analysis of two tests for detecting recent population bottlenecks from allele frequency data Genetics 144 1996 2001 2014
31. W.B. Crouch, and P.W.C. Paton Using egg-mass counts to monitor wood frog populations Wildlife Society Bulletin 28 2000 895 901
32. W.B. Crouch, and P.W.C. Paton Assessing the use of call surveys to monitor breeding anurans in Rhode Island Journal of Herpetology 36 2002 185 192
33. C.P. Cummins Testing for the effects of UV-B radiation on anti-predator behavior in amphibians: a critique and some suggestions Ethology 108 2002 643 648
34. A.A. Cunningham, T.E.S. Langton, P.M. Bennett, J-F. Lewin, S.E.N. Drury, R.E. Gough, and S.K. Macgregor Pathological and microbiological findings from incidents of unusual mortality of the common frog (Rana temporaria) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 351 1996 1539 1557
35. P. Daszak, A.A. Cunningham, and A.D. Hyatt Infectious disease and amphibian population declines Diversity and Distributions 9 2003 141 150
36. P. Daszak, A. Strieby, A.A. Cunningham, J.E. Longcore, C.C. Brown, and D. Porter Experimental evidence that the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) is a potential carrier of chytridomycosis, an emerging fungal disease of amphibians Herpetological Journal 14 2004 201 207
37. C. Davidson Declining downwind: amphibian population declines in California and historical pesticide use Ecological Applications 14 2004 1892 1902
38. C. Davidson, H.B. Shaffer, and M.R. Jennings Decline of the California redlegged frog: climate, UV-B, habitat and pesticide hypotheses Ecological Applications 11 2001 464 479
39. C. Davidson, H.B. Shaffer, and M.R. Jennings Spatial tests of the pesticide drift, habitat destruction, UV-B, and climate change hypotheses for California amphibian declines Conservation Biology 16 2002 1588 1601
40. J.S. Denton, and T.J.C. Beebee Reproductive strategies in a female-biased population of natterjack toads (Bufo calamita) Animal Behaviour 46 1993 1169 11175
41. J.S. Denton, S.P. Hitchings, T.J.C. Beebee, and A. Gent A recovery program for the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) in Britain Conservation Biology 11 1997 1329 1338
42. D.A. Driscoll Genetic neighbourhood and effective population size for two endangered frogs Biological Conservation 88 1999 221 229
43. S. Esteal, and R.B. Floyd The ecological genetics of introduced populations of the giant toad, Bufo marinus (Amphibia: Anura): dispersal and neighbourhood size Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 27 1986 17 45
44. C.S. Findlay, and J. Bourdages Response time of wetland biodiversity to road construction on adjacent lands Conservation Biology 14 2000 86 94
45. R. Frankham Effective population size/adult population size ratios in wildlife: a review Genetical Research 66 1995 95 107
46. R. Frankham, J.D. Ballou, and D.A. Briscoe Introduction to conservation genetics 2002 Cambridge University Press Cambridge
47. R.J. Fuller, R.D. Gregory, D.W. Gibbons, J.H. Marchant, J.D. Wilson, S.R. Baillie, and N. Carter Population declines and range contractions among lowland farmland birds in Britain Conservation Biology 9 1995 1425 1441
48. W.C. Funk, D.A. Tallmon, and F.W. Allendorf Small effective population size in the long-toed salamander Molecular Ecology 8 1999 1633 1640
49. J.P. Gibbs, and A.R. Breisch Climate warming and calling phenology of frogs near Ithaca, New York, 1900-1999 Conservation Biology 15 2001 1175 1178
50. D.M. Green Perspectives on amphibian declines: defining the problem and searching for answers D.M. Green Amphibians in decline: Canadian studies of a global problem 1997 Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles USA 291 308
51. D.M. Green The ecology of extinction: population fluctuation and decline in amphibians Biological Conservation 111 2003 331 343
52. Griffiths, R.A., Raper, S.J., 1994. A review of current techniques for sampling amphibian communities. JNCC Report No. 210. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough, UK.
53. Griffiths, R.A., Raper, S.J., Brady, L.D., 1996. Evaluation of a standard method for surveying common frogs (Rana temporaria) and newts (Triturus cristatus, T. helveticus and T. vulgaris). JNCC Report No. 259. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough, UK.
54. R.A. Griffiths, and C. Williams Modelling population dynamics of great crested newts (Triturus cristatus): a population viability analysis Herpetological Journal 10 2000 157 163
55. R.J. Hall, and P.F.P. Henry Assessing the effects of pesticides on amphibians and reptiles: status and needs Herpetological Journal 2 1992 65 71
56. T.B. Hayes, A. Collins, M. Lee, M. Mendoza, N. Noriega, A.A. Stuart, and A. Vonk Hermaphroditic, demasculinised frogs after exposure to the herbicide atrazine at low ecologically relevant doses Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 99 2002 5476 5480
57. T.B. Hayes, K. Haston, M. Tsui, A. Hoang, C. Haeffele, and A. Vonk Feminization of male frogs in the wild Nature 419 2002 895 896
58. S.J. Hecnar, and R.T. M'Closkey Spatial scale and determination of species status of the green frog Conservation Biology 11 1997 670 682
59. T. Hels, and E. Buchwald The effect of road kills on amphibian populations Biological Conservation 99 2001 331 340
60. W.R. Heyer Ultraviolet-B and amphibia Bioscience 53 2003 540 541
61. W.R. Heyer, M.A. Donnelly, R.W. McDiarmid, L.-A. hayek, and M.S. Foster Measuring and monitoring biological diversity. Standard methods for amphibians 1994 Smithsonian Institution Press Washington
62. R.T. Holmes, and T.W. Sherry Thirty-year bird population trends in an unfragmented temperate deciduous forest: importance of habitat change Auk 118 2001 589 609
63. R.E. Honegger List of amphibians and reptiles known or thought to have become extinct since 1600 Biological Conservation 19 1981 141 158
64. J.E. Houlahan, and C.S. Findlay The effects of adjacent land use on wetland amphibian species richness and community composition Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 60 2003 1078 1094
65. J.E. Houlahan, C.S. Findlay, B.R. Schmidt, A.H. Meyer, and S.L. Kuzmin Quantitative evidence for global amphibian population declines Nature 404 2000 752 755
66. J.K. Jancovich, E.W. Davidson, J.F. Morado, B.L. Jacobs, and J.P. Collins Isolation of a lethal virus from the endangered tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum stebbinsi Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 31 1997 161 167
67. J.K. Jancovich, E.W. Davidson, A. Seiler, B.L. Jacobs, and J.P. Collins Transmission of the Ambystoma tigrinum virus to alternate hosts Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 46 2001 159 163
68. R. Jehle, J.W Arntzen, T. Burke, A.P. Krupa, and W. Hödl The annual number of breeding adults and the effective population size of syntopic newts (Triturus cristatus, T. marmoratus) Molecular Ecology 10 2001 839 850
69. J.B. Jensen, and C.D. Camp Human exploitation of amphibians R.D. Semlitsch Amphibian conservation 2003 Smithsonian Books Washington
70. P.T.J. Johnson, and J.M. Chase Parasites in the food web: linking amphibian malformations and aquatic eutrophication Ecology Letters 7 2004 521 526
71. P.T.J. Johnson, J.K.B. Lunde, E.M. Thurman, E.G. Ritchie, S.N. Wray, D.R. Sutherland, J.M. Kapfer, T.J. Frest, J. Bowerman, and A.R. Blaustein Parasite (Riberiroia ondatrae) infection linked to amphibian malformations in the western United States Ecological Monographs 72 2002 151 168
72. V. Kati, P. Devillers, M. Dufrene, A. Legakis, D. Vokou, and P. Lebrun Testing the value of six taxonomic groups as biodiversity indicators at a local scale Conservation Biology 18 2004 667 675
73. L.B. Kats, and R.P. Ferrer Alien predators and amphibian declines: review of two decades of science and the transition to conservation Diversity and Distributions 9 2003 99 110
74. L.B. Kats, J.M. Kiesecker, D.P. Chivers, and A.R. Blaustein Effects of UV-B radiation on anti-predator behavior in three species of amphibians Ethology 106 2000 921 931
75. L.B. Kats, J.M. Kiesecker, D.P. Chivers, and A.R. Blaustein Effects of UV-B radiation on anti-predator behaviour in amphibians: reply to Cummins Ethology 108 2002 649 654
76. J.M. Kiesecker Synergism between trematode infection and pesticide exposure: a link to amphibian limb deformities in nature? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 99 2002 9900 9904
77. J.M. Kiesecker, and A.R. Blaustein Synergism between UV-B radiation and a pathogen magnifies amphibian embryo mortality in nature Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 92 1995 11049 11052
78. J.M. Kiesecker, A.R. Blaustein, and L.K. Belden Complex causes of amphibian decline Nature 410 2001 681 684
79. R.A. Knapp, and K.R. Matthews Non-native fish introductions and the decline of the mountain yellow-legged frog from within protected areas Conservation Biology 14 2000 428 438
80. M.B. Kolozsvary, and R.K. Swihart Habitat fragmentation and the distribution of amphibians: patch and landscape correlates in farmland Canadian Journal of Zoology 77 1999 1288 1299
81. P.B. Landres, J. Verner, and J.W. Thomas Ecological uses of vertebrate indicator species: a critique Conservation Biology 2 1988 316 328
82. S.J. Lane, and J.C. Alonso Status and extinction probabilities of great bustard (Otis tarda) leks in Andalucia, southern Spain Biodiversity and Conservation 10 2001 893 910
83. J.J. Lawler, D. White, J.C. Sifneos, and L.L. Master Rare species and the use of indicator groups for conservation planning Conservation biology 17 2003 875 882
84. C. Lever The cane toad. The history and ecology of a successful colonist 2001 Westbury Publishing West Yorkshire, UK
85. L.E. Licht Shedding light on ultraviolet radiation and amphibian embryos Bioscience 53 2003 551 561
86. K.R. Lips Decline of a tropical montane amphibian fauna Conservation Biology 12 1998 106 117
87. K.R. Lips Mass mortality and population declines of anurans at an upland site in western Panama Conservation Biology 13 1999 117 125
88. K.R. Lips, J.D. Reeve, and L.R. Witters Ecological traits predicting amphibian population declines in Central America Conservation Biology 17 2003 1078 1088
89. D.I. MacKenzie, J.D. Nichols, G.B. Lachman, S. Droege, J.A. Royle, and C.A. Langtimm Estimating site occupancy when detection probabilities are less than one Ecology 83 2002 2248 2255
90. D.M. Marsh Fluctuations in amphibian populations: a meta-analysis Biological Conservation 101 2001 327 335
91. M.A. McGeoch, and S.L. Chown Scaling up the value of bioindicators Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13 1998 46 47
92. D.J. Merrell A comparison of the estimated and the "effective" size of breeding populations of the leopard frog Rana pipiens Evolution 22 1968 274 283
93. A.H. Meyer, B.R. Schmidt, and K. Grossenbacher Analysis of three amphibian populations with quarter-century long time-series Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 265 1998 523 528
94. E.M. Middleton, J.R. Herman, E.A. Celarier, J.W. Wilkinson, C. Carey, and R.J. Rusin Evaluating ultraviolet radiation exposure with satellite data at sites of amphibian declines in Central and South America Conservation Biology 15 2001 914 929
95. N.W. Moore Pesticides and birds: a review of the situation in Great Britain to 1965 Bird Study 12 1967 222 252
96. E.A. Morehouse, T.Y. James, A.R.D. Ganley, R. Vilgalys, L. Berger, P.J. Murphy, and J.E. Longcore Multilocus sequence typing suggests the chytrid pathogen of amphibians is a recently emerged clone Molecular Ecology 12 2003 395 403
97. C. Morrison, and J.-M. Hero Geographical variation in life-history characteristics of amphibians: a review Journal of Animal Ecology 72 2003 270 279
98. K. Norris Managing threatened species: the ecological toolbox, evolutionary theory and declining-population paradigm Journal of Applied Ecology 41 2004 413 426
99. R.F. Noss Indicators for monitoring biodiversity: a hierarchal approach Conservation Biology 4 1990 355 364
100. D.J. Pain, D. Hill, and D.I. McCracken Impact of agricultural intensification of pastoral systems on bird distributions in Britain 1970-1990 Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 64 1997 19 32
101. M. Pahkala, J. Merila, I. Ots, and A. Laurila Effects of ultraviolet-B radiation on metamorphic traits in the common frog Rana temporaria Journal of Zoology London 259 2003 57 62
102. M. Pahkala, A. Laurila, and J. Merila Effects of ultraviolet-B radiation on common frog Rana temporaria embryos along a latitudinal gradient Oecologia 133 2003 458 465
103. W.J. Palen, D.E. Schindler, M.J. Adams, C.A. Pearl, R.B. Bury, and S.A. Diamond Optical characteristics of natural waters protect amphibians from UV-B in the US Pacific northwest Ecology 83 2002 2951 2957
104. C. Parmesan, and G. Yohe A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems Nature 421 2003 37 42
105. N.D. Paul, and D. Gwynn-Jones Ecological roles of solar UV radiation: towards an integrated approach Trends in Ecology and Evolution 18 2003 48 55
106. J.H.K. Pechmann, and H.M. Wilbur Putting declining amphibian populations in perspective: natural fluctuations and human impacts Herpetologica 50 1994 65 84
107. J.H.K. Pechmann, D.E. Scott, R.D. Semlitsch, J.P. Caldwell, L.J. Vitt, and J.W. Gibbons Declining amphibian populations: the problem of separating human impacts from natural fluctuations Science 253 1991 892 895
108. J. Pellet, and B.R. Schmidt Monitoring distribution using call surveys: estimating site occupancy, detection probabilities and inferring absence Biological Conservation 123 2005 27 35
109. J.W. Petranka, C.K. Smith, and A.F. Scott Identifying the minimal demographic unit for monitoring pond-breeding amphibians Ecological Applications 14 2004 1065 1078
110. J.A. Pounds, M.P.L. Fogden, J.M. Savage, and G.C. Gorman Tests of null models for amphibian declines on a tropical mountain Conservation Biology 11 1997 1307 1322
111. J.A. Pounds, M.P.L. Fogden, and J.H. Campbell Biological response to climate change on a tropical mountain Nature 398 1999 611 615
112. D.A. Ratcliffe Changes attributable to pesticides in egg breaking and eggshell thickness in some British birds Journal of Applied Ecology 7 1970 67 68
113. N. Ray, A. Lehmann, and R. Joly Modelling spatial distribution of amphibian populations: a GIS approach based on habitat matrix permeability Biodiversity and Conservation 11 2002 2143 2165
114. C.J. Reading The effect of winter temperatures on the timing of breeding activity in the common toad Oecologia 117 1998 469 475
115. P.W.R. Retallick, H. McCallum, and R. Speare Endemic infection of the amphibian chytrid fungus in a frog community post-decline PLOS Biology 2 2004 1965 1971
116. J. Robinson, R.A. Griffiths, and P. Jeffreys Susceptibility of frog (Rana temporaria) and toad (Bufo bufo) eggs to invasion by Saprolegnia Amphibia-Reptilia 24 2003 261 268
117. G. Rowe, and T.J.C. Beebee Population on the verge of a mutational meltdown? Fitness costs of genetic load for an amphibian in the wild? Evolution 57 2003 177 181
118. G. Rowe, and T.J.C. Beebee Reconciling genetic and demographic estimates of effective population size in the anuran amphibian Bufo calamita Conservation Genetics 5 2004 287 298
119. J.A. Royle Modelling abundance index data from anuran calling surveys Conservation Biology 18 2004 1378 1385
120. B.R. Schmidt Count data, detection probabilities, and the demography, dynamics, distribution, and decline of amphibians Comptes Rendues Biologie 326 2003 119 124
121. B.R. Schmidt Declining amphibian populations: the pitfalls of count data in the study of diversity, distributions, dynamics and demography Herpetological Journal 14 2004 167 174
122. B. Schmidt Pesticides, mortality and population growth rate Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19 2004 459 460
123. K.T. Scribner, J.W. Arntzen, and T. Burke Effective numbers of breeding adults in Bufo bufo estimated from age-specific variation at minisatellite loci Molecular Ecology 6 1997 701 712
124. L.J. Shirose, C.A. Bishop, D.M. Green, C.J. MacDonald, R.J. Brooks, and N.J. Helferty Validation tests of an amphibian call count survey technique in Ontario, Canada Herpetologica 53 1997 312 320
125. A. Sih, A.M. Bell, and J.L. Kerby Two stressors are far deadlier than one Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19 2004 274 276
126. A. Sih, J. Kerby, A. Bell, and R. Relyea Response to Schmidt. Pesticides, mortality and population growth rate Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19 2004 460 461
127. D. Simberloff Flagships, umbrellas, and keystones: is single-species management passé in the landscape era Biological Conservation 83 1998 247 257
128. P. Sjögren-Gulve Modeling amphibians and reptiles: an overview H. Acakaya Species management: case studies 2004 Oxford University Press New York 273 280
129. D.K. Skelly, K.L. Yurewicz, E.E. Werner, and R.A. Relyea Estimating decline and distributional change in amphibians Conservation Biology 17 2003 744 751
130. F.D.M. Smith, R.M. May, R. Pellew, T.H. Johnson, and K.R. Walter How much do we know about the current extinction rate? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 8 1993 375 378
131. Soulé, M.E., 1986. Conservation Biology. In: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity. Sinauer, New York, USA.
132. A. Storfer Amphibian declines: future directions Diversity and Distributions 9 2003 151 163
133. N.E. Stork, and M.J. Samways Inventorying and monitoring of biodiversity V.H. Heywood Global biodiversity assessment 1995 Cambridge University Press Berlin 453 543
134. S.N. Stuart, J.S. Chanson, N.A. Cox, B.E. Young, A.S.L. Rodrigues, D.L. Fischmann, and R.W. Waller Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide Science 306 2004 1783 1786
135. F.A. Vertucci, and P.S. Corn Evaluation of episodic acidification and amphibian declines in the Rocky Mountains Ecological Applications 6 1997 449 457
136. L.J. Vitt, J.P. Caldwell, H.M. Wilbur, and D.C. Smith Amphibians as harbingers of decay BioScience 40 1990 418
137. J.R. Vonesh, and O. De la Cruz Complex life cycles and density dependence: assessing the contribution of egg mortality to amphibian declines Oecologia 133 2002 325 333
138. C. Vorburger, and H-U. Reyer A genetic mechanism of species replacement in European water frogs Conservation Genetics 4 2003 141 155
139. V.T. Vredenberg Reversing introduced species effects: experimental removal of introduced fish leads to rapid recovery of a declining frog Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101 2004 7646 7650
140. D.B. Wake Declining amphibian populations Science 253 1991 860
141. D.B. Wake Action on amphibians Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13 1998 379 380
142. G.-R. Walther, E. Post, C. Parmesan, P. Convey, A. Menzel, T.J.C. Beebee, J.-M. Fromentin, O. Hoegh-Guldberg, and F. Bairlein Ecological responses to recent climate change Nature 416 2002 389 395
143. J. Wang, and M.C. Whitlock Estimating effective population size and migration rate from genetic samples over space and time Genetics 163 2003 429 446
144. R.S. Waples A generalised approach for estimating effective population size from temporal changes in allele frequency Genetics 121 1989 379 391
145. P.H. Williams, and K.J. Gaston Measuring more of biodiversity: can higher-taxon richness predict wholesale species richness Biological Conservation 67 1994 211 217
146. R.L. Wyman What's happening to the amphibians? Conservation Biology 4 1990 350 352
147. T. Zhang Study on fish and amphibian embryo-larval toxicity test Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 55 1999 363 369