Biological control of ticks

Parasitology

Volumn 129, Issue SUPPL., 2004, Pages

  Samish, Michael ^a   Ginsberg, H ^b   Glazer, I ^c  

^a KIMRON VETERINARY INSTITUTE   (Israel)

^b UNIVERSITY OF RHODE ISLAND   (United States)

^c VOLCANI CENTER   (Israel)

Author keywords

Biocontrol; Entomopathogenic fungi; Entomopathogenic nematodes; Ixodidae; Parasitoids; Predators

Indexed keywords

BEAUVERIA; BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENT; BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL; ENTOMOPATHOGENY; FUNGUS; GENETIC VARIABILITY; INSECT CONTROL; METARHIZIUM ANISOPLIAE; NEMATODE; NONHUMAN; PEST CONTROL; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TICK; WASP;

ANIMALS; ARACHNID VECTORS; PEST CONTROL, BIOLOGICAL; TICK INFESTATIONS; TICK-BORNE DISEASES; TICKS;

ACARI; CORDYCEPS BASSIANA; FUNGI; IXODIDAE; IXODIPHAGUS; METARHIZIUM ANISOPLIAE; NEMATODA;

EID: 20344375459     PISSN: 00311820     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0031182004005219     Document Type: Review

References (153)

1. ALEKSEEV, A. N., BURENKOVA, L. A., PODBORONOV, V. M. & CHUNIKHIN, S. P. (1995). Bacteriocidal qualities of ixodid tick (Acarina: Ixodidae) salivary cement plugs and their changes under the influence of a viral tick-borne pathogen. Journal of Medical Entomology 32, 578-582.
2. ALFEEV, N. I. (1946). The utilisation of Hunterellus hookeri How. for the control of the tick, Ixodes ricinus L. and Ixodes persulcatus. Review of Applied Entomology B34, 108-109 (abstract).
3. BARCI, L. A. G. (1997). Biological control of the cattle tick Boophilus microplus (Acari, Ixodidae) in Brazil. Arquivos Instuto Biologico, Sao Paulo 64, 95-101.
4. BARRE, N., MAULEON, H., GARRIS, G. I. & KERMARREC, A. (1991). Predators of the tick Amblyomma variegatum (Acari: Ixodidae) in Guadeloupe, French West Indies. Experimental and Applied Acarology 12, 163-170.
5. BENJAMIN, M. A., ZHIOUA, E. & OSTFELD, R. S. (2002). Laboratory and field evaluation of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycetes) for controlling questing adult Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 39, 723-728.
6. BEZUIDENHOUT, J. D. & STUTTERHEIM, C. J. (1980). A critical evaluation of the role played by the red-billed oxpecker Buphagus erythrorhychus in the biological control of ticks. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 47, 51-75.
7. BITTENCOURT, V. R. E. P. (2000). Trials to control South American ticks with entomopathogenic fungi. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 916, 555-558.
8. BITTENCOURT, V. R. E. P., MASSARD, C. L. & LIMA, A. F. (1994a). The action of Metarhizium anisopliae, at eggs and larvae of tick Boophilus microplus. Revisto da Universidade Rural Serie Ciencias da Vida 16, 41-47.
9. BITTENCOURT, V. R. E. P., MASSARD, C. L. & LIMA, A. F. (1994b). The action of Metarhizium anisopliae, at free living stages of Boophilus microplus. Revista da Universidade Rural Serie Ciencias da Vida 16, 49-55.
10. BITTENCOURT, V. R. E. P., SOUZA, E. J., PERALVA, S. L. F. S. & REIS, R. C. S. (1999). Efficacy of the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff, 1887) Sorokin,1883 in field test with bovines naturally infested with the tick Boophilus microplus (Canestrini, 1887) (Acari: Ixodidae). Revista Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinaria 21, 78-81.
11. BOICHEV, D. & RIZVANOV, K. (1960). Relation of Botrytis cinerea Pers. to ixodid ticks. Zoologicheskii Zhurnal Akademija Nauk USSR 39, 462.
12. BOWMAN, J. L., LOGAN, T. M. & HAIR, J. A. (1986). Host suitability of Ixodiphagus texanus Howard on five species of hard ticks. Journal of Agricultural Entomology 3, 1-9.
13. BROWN, R. S., REICHELDERFER, C. F. & ANDERSON, W. R. (1970). An endemic disease among laboratory populations of Dermacentor andersoni (= D. venustus) (Acarina: Ixodidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 16, 142-143.
14. BRUM, J. G. W., FACCINI, J. L. H. & DO AMARAL, M. M. (1991a). Infection in engorged females of Boophilus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae). II. Histopathology and in vitro trials. Arquivos Brasileiro Medicina Vetrinaria Zootecnologia 43, 35-37.
15. BRUM, J. G. w. & TEIXEIRA, M. O. (1992). Acaricidal activity of Cedea lapagei on engorged females of Boophilus microplus exposed to the environment. Arquivos Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinaria i Zoologia 44, 543-544.
16. BRUM, J. G. W., TEIXEIRA, M. O. & DA SILVA, E. G. (1991b). Infection in engorged females of Boophilus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae). I. Etiology and seasonal incidence. Arquivos Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinaria i Zoologia 43, 25-30.
17. BUTT, T. M., JACKSON, C. W. & MAGAN, N. (ed.) (2001). Fungi as Biocontrol Agents - Progress, Problems and Potential. Oxford, UK, CABI.
18. CAMACHO, E. R., NAVARO, G., RODRIGUEZ, R. M. & MURILLO, E. Y. (1998). Effectiveness of Verticillium lecanii against the parasitic stage of the tick Boophilus microplus (Acari: Metastigmata: Ixodidae). Revista Colombiana Entomologia 24, 67-69.
19. CASTINEIRAS, A., JIMENO, G., LOPEZ, M. & SOSA, L. M. (1987). Effect of Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae (Fungi, Imperfecti) and Pheidole megacephala (Hymenopthera, Formicidae) on eggs of Boophilus microplus (Acarina: Ixodidae). Revista Salud Animal 9, 288-293.
20. CASTRO, A. B. A., BITTENCOURT, V. R. E. P., DAEMON, E. & VIEGAS, E. C. (1997). Efficacy of the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (isolate 959) on the tick Boophilus microplus in a stall test. Revista Universidade Rural, Serie Ciencias da Vida 19, 73-82.
21. CERAUL, S. M., SONENSHINE, D. E. & HYNES, W. L. (2002). Resistance of the tick Dermacentor variabilis (Acari: Ixodidae) following challenge with the bacterium Escherichi coli (Enterobacteriales: Enterobacteriaceae). Journal of Medical Entomology 39, 376-383.
22. CHANDLER, D., DAVIDSON, G., PELL, J. K., BALL, B. V., SHAW, K. & SUNDERLAND, K. D. (2000). Fungal biocontrol of Acari. Biocontrol Science and Technology 10, 357-384.
23. CHEREPANOVA, N. P. (1964). Fungi which are found on ticks. Botanicheskii Zhurnal 49, 696-699.
24. COBB, S. (1942). Tick parasites on Cape Cod. Science 95, 503.
25. COLE, M. M. (1965). Biological control of ticks by the use of hymenopterous parasites - a review. World Health Organization Publication, WHO/ebl/43.65, 1-12.
26. COOLEY, R. A. & KOHLS, G. M. (1934). A summary on tick parasites. Proceedings of the 5th Pacific Science Congress, Canada 1933. The University of Toronto Press 5, 3375-3381.
27. COPPING, L. G. (2001). The Bio-Pesticide Manual (2nd edition). British Crop Protection Council Publication, Surrey.
28. CORREIA, A. C. B., FIORIN, A. C., MONTEIRO, A. C. & VERISSIMO C. J. (1998). Effects of Metarhizium anisopliae on the tick Boophilus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae) in stabled cattle. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 71, 189-191.
29. COUTO, J. T. (1994). Operation oxpecker. The Farmers December, pp. 10-11.
30. DA COSTA, G. L., SARQUIS, M. I. M., DE MORAES, A. M. L. & BITTENCOURT, V. R. E. P. (2001). Isolation of Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae var anisopliae from Boophilus microplus tick (Canestrini, 1887), in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Micropathologia 154, 207-209.
31. DAVIS, A. J. (1986). Bibliography of the Ixodiphagini (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea, Encyrtidae), parasites of ticks (Acari, Ixodidae), with notes on their biology. Tijdschrift voor Entomologie 129, 181-190.
32. DAVISON, E. (1963). Introduction of oxpeckers (Buphagus africanus and B. erythrorhynus) into McIlwaine National Park. Ostrich 34, 172-173.
33. DE BACH, P. & ROSEN, D. (1991). Biological Control by Natural Enemies, 2nd Edn. New York, Cambridge University Press.
34. DOUBE, B. M. & HEATH, A. C. G. (1975). Observations on the biology and seasonal abundance of an encyrtid wasp, a parasite of ticks in Queensland. Journal of Medical Entomology 12, 443-447.
35. DREYER, K., FOURIE, L. J. & Kok, D. J. (1997). Predation of livestock ticks by chickens as a tick-control method in a resource-poor urban environment. Ondersterpoort Journal of Veterinary Research 64, 273-276.
36. DUBOIS, N. R. & DEAN, D. H. (1995). Synergism between CryIA insecticidal crystal proteins and spores of Bacillus thuringiensis, other bacterial spores, and vegetative cells against Lymantria dispar (Lepidoptera: Lymanntridae) larvae. Environmental Entomology 24, 1741-1747.
37. EL-SADAWY, H. A. E. & HABEEB, S. M. (1998). Testing some entomopathogenic nematodes for the biocontrol of Hyalomma dromedrii Koch (Acarina: Ixodidae). Journal of the Union of Arab Biologists, Cairo 10A, Zoology 1-11.
38. ESTRADAPENA, A., GONZALEZ, J. & CASASOLAS, A. (1990). The activity of Aspergillus ochraceus (Fungi) on replete females of Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Acari: Ixodidae) in natural and experimental conditions. Folia Parasitologica 37, 331-336.
39. FLEXNER, J. L. & BELNAVIS, D. L. (2000). Microbial insecticides. In Biological and Biotechnological Control of Insect Pests (ed. Rechcigl, J. E. & Rechcigl, N. A.), pp. 35-62. Boca Raton, Florida, USA, Lewis Publishers.
40. GAHAN, A. B. (1934). On the identities of chalcidoid tick parasites (Hymenoptera). Washington Entomological Society Proceedings 36, 87-88.
41. GAUGLER, R. (ed.) (2002). Entomopathogenic Nematology. Oxford, UK, CABI.
42. GEORGIS, R. & MANWEILER, S. A. (1994). Entomopathogenic nematodes: a developing biological control technology. Agricultural Zoological Review 6, 63-94.
43. GILL, S. S., COWLES, E. A. & PIETRANTONIO, P. V. (1992). The mode of action of Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxins. Annual Review of Entomology 37, 615-636.
44. GINDLN, G., SAMISH, M., ALEKSEEV, E. & GLAZER, I. (2001). The susceptibility of Boophilus annulatus (Ixodidae) ticks to entomopathogenic fungi. Biocontrol Science and Technology 11, 111-118.
45. GINDIN, G., SAMISH, M., ZANGI, G., MISHOUTCHENKO, A. & GLAZER, I. (2003). The susceptibility of different species and stages of ticks to entomopathogenic fungi. Experimental and Applied Acarology 28, 283-288.
46. GINSBERG, H. S., LEBRUN, R. A., HEYER, K. & ZHIOUA, E. (2002). Potential nontarget effects of Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycetes) used for biological control of ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). Environmental Entomology 31, 1191-1196.
47. GINSBERG, H. S. & ZHIOUA, E. (1999). Influence of deer abundance on the abundance of questing adult Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 36, 376-381.
48. GLAZER, I. (2001). Survival biology. In Entomopathogenic Nematology (ed. Gaugler, R.), pp. 169-187. Oxford, UK, CABI.
49. GLAZER, I., ALEKSEEV, E. & SAMISH, M. (2001). Factors affecting the virulence of entomopathogenic nematodes to engorged female Boophilus annulatus. Journal of Parasitology 87, 808-812.
50. GORSHKOVA, G. J. (1966). Reduction of fecundity of ixodid ticks females by fungal infection. Vestnik Leningradskogo Universiteta Seria Biologia 21, 13-16.
51. GRAF, J. F. (1979). The biology of an encyrtid wasp parasitizing ticks on the Ivory Coast. In Recent Advances in Acarology, Volume I (ed. Rodriguez, J. G.), pp. 463-468. New York, Academic Press.
52. GROBLER, J. H. (1976). The introduction of oxpeckers into the Rhodes Matopos National Park. Honeyguide 87, 23-25.
53. GROBLER, J. H. (1979). The re-introduction of oxpeckers Buphagus africanus and B. erythrorhynchus to Rhodes Matopos National Park, Rhodesia. Biological Conservation 15, 151-158.
54. GUANGFU, T. (1984). Experiment of infection and killing of Hyalomma detritum with fungi. Journal of Veterinary Sciences (China) 7, 11-13.
55. GUERRA, R. M. S. N. C., TEIXEIRA FILHO, W. L., COSTA, G. L. & BITTENCOURT, V. R. E. P. (2001). Fungus isolated from Rhipicephabus sanguineus (Acari: Ixodidae), Cochliomya macellaria (Diptera: Muscidae) and Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidea), naturally infected on Seropedica, Rio de Janeiro. Ciencia Animal 11, 133-136.
56. HAJEK, A. E. & ST. LEGER, R. J. (1994). Interaction between fungal pathogens and insect hosts. Annual Review of Entomology 39, 293-322.
57. HASSAN, S. M., DIPEOLU, O. O., AMOO, A. O. & ODHIAMBO, T. R. (1991). Predation on livestock ticks by chickens. Veterinary Parasitology 38, 199-204.
58. HASSAN, S. M., DIPEOLU, O. O. & MUNYINYI, D. M. (1992). Influence of exposure period and management methods on the effectiveness of chickens as predators of ticks infesting cattle. Veterinary Parasitology 43, 301-309.
59. HASSANAIN, M. A., DERBALA, A. A., ABDEL-BARRY, N. A., EL-SHERIF, M. A. & EL-SADAWY, H. A. E. (1999). Biological control of ticks (Argasidae) by entomopathogenic nematodes. Egyptian Journal of Biological Pest Control 7, 41-46.
60. HASSANAIN, M. A., EL GARHY, M. F., ABDEL-GHAFFAR, F. A., EL-SHARABY, A. & MEGEED, K. N. A. (1997). Biological control studies of soft and hard ticks in Egypt, I. The effect of Bacillus thuringiensis varieties on soft and hard ticks (Ixodidae). Parasitology Research 83, 209-213.
61. HENDRY, D. A. & RECHAV, Y. (1981). Acaricidal bacteria infecting laboratory colonies of the tick Boophilus decoloratus (Acarina: Ixodidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 38, 149-151.
62. HILL, D. E. (1998). Entomopathogenic nematodes as control agents of developmental stages of the black-legged tick, Ixodes scapularis. Journal of Parasitology 84, 1124-1127.
63. HOOGSTRAAL, H. (1977). Pathogens of Acarina (ticks). In Pathogens of Medically Important Arthropods (ed. Roberts, D. W. & Strand, M. A.), pp. 337-342. No. 55. Geneva, WHO.
64. HOWARD, L. O. (1907). A chalcidid parasite of a tick. Entomological News 18, 375-378.
65. HOWARD, L. O. (1908). Another chalcidoid parasite of a tick. The Canadian Entomologist 40, 239-241.
66. HU, R. & HYLAND, K. E. (1997). Prevalence and seasonal activity of the wasp parasitoid, Ixodiphagus hookeri (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in its tick host, Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae). Systematic and Applied Acarology 2, 95-100.
67. HU, R. & HYLAND, K. E. (1998). Effects of the feeding process of Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) on embryonic development of its parasitoid, Ixodiphagus hookeri (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 35, 1050-1053.
68. HU, R., HYLAND, K. E. & MATHEU, T. N. (1993). Occurrence and distribution in Rhode Island of Hunterellus hookeri (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), a wasp parasitoid of Ixodes dammini. Journal of Medical Entomology 30, 277-280.
69. HU, R., HYLAND, K. E. & OLIVER, J. H. (1998). A review on the use of Ixodiphagus wasps (Hymedoptera: Encyrtidae) as natural enemies for the control of ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). Systematic and Applied Acarology 3, 19-28.
70. JENKINS, D. W. (1964). Pathogens, parasites and predators of medically important arthropods. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, Supplement No. 30. pp. 1-150.
71. JOHNS, R., SONENSHINE, D. E. & HYNES, W. L. (1998). Control of bacterial infections in the hard tick Dermacentor variabilis (Acari: Ixodidae): evidence for the existence of antimicrobial proteins in tick hemolymph. Journal of Medical Entomology 35, 458-464.
72. KAAYA, G. V. (2000). Laboratory and field evaluation of entomogenous fungi for tick control. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 916, 559-564.
73. KAAYA, G. P. (2003). Prospects for innovative methods of tick control in Africa. Insect Science and Application 23, 59-67.
74. KAAYA, G. P. & HASSAN, S. (2000). Entomogenous fungi as promising biopesticides for tick control. Experimental and Applied Acarology 24, 913-926.
75. KAAYA, G. P. & MWANGI, E. N. (1995). Control of livestock ticks in Africa: possibilities of biological control using the entomogenous fungi Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae. Proceedings and Abstracts, Krugers National Park, South Africa 1995, 5-16.
76. KAAYA, G. P., MWANGI, E. N. & OUNA, E. A. (1996). Prospects for biological control of livestock ticks, Rhipicephalus appendicidatus and Amblyomma variegatum, using the entomogenous fungi Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 67, 15-20.
77. KAAYA, G. P., SAMISH, M. & GLAZER, I. (2000). Laboratory evaluation of pathogenicity of entomopathogenic nematodes to African tick species. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 916, 303-308.
78. KAISER, M. N. & HOOGSTRAAL, H. (1958). Hunterellus theileri Fiedler (Encyrtidae, Chalcidoidea) parasitizing an African Hyalomma tick on a migrant bird in Egypt. Journal of Parasitology 44, 392.
79. KALSBEEK, V., FRANDSEN, F. & STEENBERG, T. (1995). Entomopathogenic fungi associated with Ixodes ricinus ticks. Experimental and Applied Acarology 19, 45-51.
80. KNIPLING, E. F. & STEELMAN, C. D. (2000). Feasibility of controlling Ixodes scapularis ticks (Acari: Ixodidae), the vector of Lyme Disease, by parasitoid augmentation. Journal of Medical Entomology 37, 645-652.
81. KNULLE, W. & RUDOLPH, D. (1982). Humidity relationships and water balance of ticks. In Physiology of Ticks (ed. Obenchain, F. D. & Galun, R.), pp. 43-70. Oxford, Pergamon Press.
82. KOCAN, K. M., BLOUIN, E. F., PIDHERNEY, M. S., CLAYPOOL, P. L., SAMISH, M. & GLAZER, I. (1998a). Entomopathogenic nematodes as a potential biological control method for ticks. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 849, 355-356.
83. KOCAN, K. M., PIDHERNEY, M. S., BLOUIN, E. F., CLAYPOOL, P. L., SAMISH, M. & GLAZER, I. (1998b). Interaction of entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernematidae) with selected species of ixodid ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 35, 514-520.
84. KOK, O. B. & PETNEY, T. N. (1993). Small and medium sized, mammals as predators of ticks (Ixodoidea) in South Africa. Experimental and Applied Acarology 17, 733-740.
85. KOLOMYETZ, U. S. (1950). Aspergilus fumigatus as a parasite of ticks. Priroda 39, 64-65.
86. KRYLOV, B. (1972). Some problems in the study of fungal diseases of the bed bugs Cimex lectularius and ticks Argas perdais. Microbiol met borby s ectoparazit ptic Frunze, Ilim, 53-55.
87. LARROUSSE, F., KING, A. G. & WOLBACH, S. B. (1928). The overwintering in Massachusetts of Ixodiohagus caucurtei. Science 67, 351-353.
88. LIPA, J. J. (1971). Microbial control of mites and ticks. In Microbial Control of Insects and Mites (ed. Burges, H. D. & Hussey, N. W.), pp. 357-373. London, New York, Academic Press.
89. MANI, M. S. (1941). Studies on Indian parasitic Hymenoptera. I. Indian Journal of Entomology 3, 25-36.
90. MARTIN, P. A. W. & SCHMIDTMANN, E. T. (1998). Isolation of aerobic microbes from Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae), the vector of Lyme disease in the eastern United States. Journal of Economic Entomology 91, 864-868.
91. MASSON, C. A. & NORVAL, R. A. I. (1980). The ticks of Zimbabwe. I. The genus Boophilus. Zimbabwe Veterinary Journal 11, 36-43.
92. MATHER, T. N., PIESMAN, J. & SPIELMAN, A. (1987). Absence of spirochaetes (Borrelia burgdorferi) and piroplasms (Babesia microti) in deer ticks (Ixodes dammini) parasitized by chalcid wasps (Hunterellus hookeri). Medical and Veterinary Entomology 1, 3-8.
93. MAULEON, H., BARRE, N. & PANOMA, S. (1993). Pathogenicity of 17 isolates of entomophagous nematodes (Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae) for the ticks Amblyomma variegatum (Fabricius), Boophilus microplus (Canestrini) and Booplulus annulatus (Say). Experimental and Applied Acarology 17, 831-838.
94. MONTEIRO, S. G. M., BITTENCOURT, V. R. E. P., DAEMON, E. & FACCINI, J. L. H. (1998a). Effect of the entomopathogenic fungi Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana on eggs of Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Acari: Ixodidae). Ciencia Rural, Santa Maria 28, 461-466.
95. MONTEIRO, S. G. M., BITTENCOURT, V. R. E. P., DAEMON, E. & FACCINI, J. L. H. (1998b). Pathogenicity under laboratory conditions of the fungi Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae on larvae of the tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Acari: Ixodidae). Revista Brasileira de Parasitologia Veterinaria 7, 113-116.
96. MOORING, M. S. & MUNDY, P. J. (1996). Factors influencing host selection by Yellow-billed oxpeckers at Matoba national park, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 34, 177-188.
97. MUNDY, P. J. & COOK, A. W. (1975). Observation of the yellow-billed oxpecker Buphagus africanus in northern Nigeria. Ibis 117, 504-506.
98. MWANGI, E. N. (1991). The role of predators, parasitoids and pathogens in regulating natural populations of the non-parasitic stages of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Neumann and other livestock ticks, and related aspects of the tick's ecology. PhD thesis. Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya.
99. MWANGI, E. N., DIPEOLU, O. O., NEWSON, R. M., KAAYA, G. P. & HASSAN, S. M. (1991 a). Predators, parasitoids and pathogens of ticks: a review. Biocontrol Science and Technology 1, 147-156.
100. MWANGI, E. N., HASSAN, S. M., KAAYA, G. P. & ESSUMAN, S. (1997). The impact of Ixodiphagus hookeri, a tick parasitoid, on Amblyomma variegatum (Acari: Ixodidae) in a field trial in Kenya. Experimental and Applied Acarology 21, 117-126.
101. MWANGI, E. N. & KAAYA, G. P. (1997). Prospects of using tick parasitoids (Insecta) for tick management in Africa. International Journal of Acarology 23, 215-219.
102. MWANGI, E. N., KAAYA, G. P. & ESSUMEN, S. (1995). Experimental infections of the tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus with entomopathogenic fungi, Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae, and natural infections of some ticks with bacteria and fungi. Journal African Zoology 109, 151-160.
103. MWANGI, E. N., NEWSON, R. M. & KAAYA, G. P. (1991b). Predation of free-living engorged female Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. Experimental and Applied Acarology 12, 153-162.
104. NAVON, A. (2000). Entomopathogenic bacteria: from laboratory to field application. In Bacillus thuringiensis Application in Agriculture (ed. Charles, J. F., Delecluse, A. & Nielsen-Le Roux, C.), pp. 455-365. Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
105. NODA, H., MUNDERLOH, U. G. & KURTTI, T. J. (1997). Endosymbionts of ticks and their relationship to Wolbachia spp. and tick-borne pathogens of humans and animals. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 63, 3926-3932.
106. NORVAL, R. A. I. & LIGHTFOOT, C. J. (1982). Tick problems in wildlife in Zimbabwe. Factors influencing the occurrence and abundance of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. Zimbabwe Veterinary Journal 13, 11-20.
107. OLIVER, J. H. Jr. (1964). A wasp parasite of the possum tick, Ixodes tasmani, in Australia. The Pan-Pacific Entomologist 40, 227-230.
108. PAIAO, J. C. V., MONTEIRO, A. C. & KRONKA, S. N. (2001). Susceptibility of the cattle tick Boophilus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae) to isolates of the fungus Beauveria bassiana. World Journal of Microbiology and Biochemistry 17, 245-251.
109. PETNEY, T. N. & KOK, O. B. (1993). Birds as predators of ticks (Ixodoidea) in South Africa. Experimental and Applied Acarology 17, 393-403.
110. PETRISCHEVA, P. A. & ZHMAYEVA, Z. M. (1949). Natural enemies of field ticks. Zoologichesku Zhurnal 28, 479-481.
111. POINAR, G. O. Jr. (1973). Entomogenous Nematodes. A Manual and Host List of Insect-Nematode Associations. Leiden, Belgium, E. J. Brill.
112. RAMAMOORTHY, R. & SCHOLL-MEEKER, D. (2001). Borrelia burgdorferi proteins whose expression is similarly affected by culture temperature and pH. Infection and Immunity 69, 2739-2742.
113. REIS, R. C. S., MELO, D. R., SOUZA, E. J. & BITTENCOURT, V. R. E. P. (2001). In vitro action of the fungi Beauveria bassiana Vuill and Metarhizium anisopbiae Sorok on nymphs and adults of Amblyomma cajenense (Acari: Ixodidae). Arquivos Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinaria i Zootecnologia 53, 544-547.
114. ROBERTSON, A. & JARVIS, A. M. (2000). Oxpeckers in north-eastern Namibia: recent population trends and the possible negative impacts of drought and fire. Biological Conservation 92, 241-247.
115. SAMISH, M. & ALEKSEEV, E. A. (2001). Arthropods as predators of ticks (Ixodoidea). Journal of Medical Entomology 38, 1-11.
116. SAMISH, M., ALEKSEEV, E. A. & GLAZER, I. (1995). The development of entomopathogenic nematodes in the tick B. anmdatus. In The Second International Conference on Tick Borne Pathogens at the Host Vector Interface: A Global Perspective (ed. Coons, L. & Rothschild, M.), pp. 2-4. Krugel National Park, South Africa: Proceedings and Abstracts. S.I.: The conference, 1998.
117. SAMISH, M., ALEKSEEV, E. A. & GLAZER, I. (1998). The effect of soil composition on anti-tick activity of entomopathogenic nematodes. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 849, 402-403.
118. SAMISH, M., ALEKSEEV, E. A. & GLAZER, I. (1999a). Efficacy of entomopathogenic nematode strains against engorged Boophilus annulatus females (Acari: Ixodidae) under simulated field conditions. Journal of Medical Entomology 36, 727-732.
119. SAMISH, M., ALEKSEEV, E. A. & GLAZER, I. (1999b). Interaction between ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) and pathogenic nematodes (Nematoda): susceptibility of tick species at various developmental stages. Journal of Medical Entomology 36, 733-740.
120. SAMISH, M., ALEKSEEV, E. A. & GLAZER, I. (2000a). Biocontrol of ticks by entomopathogenic nematodes. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 916, 589-594.
121. SAMISH, M., ALEKSEEV, E. A. & GLAZER, I. (2000b). Mortality rate of adult ticks due to infection by entomopathogenic nematodes. Journal of Parasitology 86, 679-684.
122. SAMISH, M. & GLAZER, I. (1992). Infectivity of entomopathogenic nematodes (Stainernematidae and Heterorhabditidae) to female ticks of Boophilus annulatus (Arachenida, Ixodidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 29, 614-618.
123. SAMISH, M., GINDIN, G., ALEKSEEV, E. & GLAZER, I. (2001). Pathogenicity of entomopathogenic fungi to different developmental stages of Rhipicephalus sanguineus. Journal of Parasitology 87, 1355-1359.
124. SAMISH, M. & GLAZER, I. (2001). Entomopathogenic nematodes for the biocontrol of ticks. Trends in Parasitology 17, 368-371.
125. SAMISH, M. & REHACEK, J. (1999). Pathogens and predators of ticks and their potential in biological control. Annual Review of Entomology 44, 159-182.
126. SAMSINAKOVA, A. (1957). Beauveria globulifera (SPEG) Pic. as a parasite of the tick Ixodes ricinus L. Zoologicke Listi 20, 329-330.
127. SAMSINAKOVA, A., KALALOVA, S., DANIEL, M., DUSBABEK, F., HOUZAKOVA, E. & CERNY, V. (1974). Entomogenous fungi associated with the tick Ixodes ricinus. Folia Prarasitologica (Praha) 21, 39-48.
128. SAMUEL, W. M. & WELCH, D. A. (1991). Winter ticks on moose and other ungulates: factors influencing their population size. Alces 27, 169-182.
129. SEBESTA, K., FARKAS, J., HORSKA, K. & VANKOVA, J. (1981). Thuringiensin, the beta-exotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis. In Microbial Control of Pests and Plant Diseases (1970-1980) (ed. Burges H. D.), pp. 249-281. New York, Academic Press.
130. SEWIFY, G. H. & HABIB, S. M. (2001). Biological control of the tick fowl Argas persicargas persicus by the entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopbiae. Journal of Pest Science 74, 121-123.
131. SHELTON, A. M. & ROUSH, R. T. (2000). Resistance to insect pathogens and strategies to manage resistance. In Field Manual of Techniques in Invertebrate Pathology (ed. Lacy, L. A. & Kaaya, H. K.), pp. 829-845. Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
132. SMITH, C. N. & COLE, M. M. (1943). Studies of parasites of the American dog tick. Journal of Economic Entomology 36, 469-472.
133. SONENSHINE, D. E. (1991). Biology of Ticks, Vol. 1. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
134. STAFFORD, K. C. III, DENICOLA, A. J. & KILPATRICK, H. J. (2003). Reduced abundance of Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) and the tick parasitoid Ixodiphagus hookeri (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) with reduction of white-tailed deer. Journal of Medical Entomology 40, 642-652.
135. STAFFORD, K. C. III, DENICOLA, A. J. & MAGNARELLI, L. A. (1996). Presence of Ixodiphagus hookeri (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in two Connecticut populations of Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 33, 183-188.
136. STAFFORD, K. C. & KITRON, U. (2002). Environmental management for Lyme Borreliosis control. In Lyme Borreliosis Biology, Epidemiology and Control, (ed. Gray, J. S., Kahl, O., Lane, R. S. & Stanek, G.), pp. 301-334. Oxford, UK, CABI.
137. STEINHAUS, E. A. & MARSH, G. A. (1962). Report of diagnoses of diseased insects 1951-1961. Hilgardia 33, 349-390.
138. STUTTERHEIM, C. & BROCKE, R. (1981). Past and present ecological distribution of the yellow billed oxpecker in South Africa. African Journal of Zoology 16, 44-49.
139. STUTTERHEIM, C. J. & STUTTERHEIM, I. M. (1980). Evidence of an increase in a red-billed oxpecker population in the Kruger National Park. South African Journal of Zoology 15, 284.
140. STUTTERHEIM, I. M., BEZUIDENHOUT, J. D. & ELLIOTT, E. G. R. (1988). Comparative feeding behavior and food preferences of oxpeckers (Buphagus erythrorhynchus and B. africanus) in captivity. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 55, 173-179.
141. SYMONDSON, W. O. C. SUNDERLAND, K. D. & GREENSTONE, M. H. (2002). Can generalist predators be effective biocontrol agents? Annual Revue of Entomology 47, 561-594.
142. TAKASU, K., TAKANO, S.-I., SASAKI, M., YAGI, S. & NAKAMURA, S. (2003). Host recognition by the tick parasitoid Ixodiphagus hookeri (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Environmental Entomology 32, 614-617.
143. TRJAPITZIN, V. A. (1985). Natural enemies of Ixodes persulcatus. In Taiga Tick, Ixodes persulcatus Schulze (Acarina, Ixodidae) - Morphology, Systematics, Ecology, Medical Importance (ed. Filippova, N. A.), pp. 334-347. Leningrad, Russia Nauka Publishers.
144. VAN DRIESCHE, R. G. & BELLOWS, T. S. J. R. (1996). Biological Control. New York, Chapman & Hall.
145. VAN SOMEREN, V. D. (1951). The red billed oxpecker and its relation to stock in Kenya. East African Agricultural Journal 17, 1-11.
146. VERISSIMO, C. J. (1995). Natural enemies of the cattle parasitic tick. Agropecuaria Catarinense 8, 35-37.
147. WEEKS, P. (1999). Interaction between Red-billed oxpeckers, Buphagus erythrorhynchus and domestic cattle, Bos taurus, in Zimbabwe. Animal Behaviour 58, 1253-1259.
148. WYSOKI, M. (1998). Problems and trends of agricultural entomology at the end of the 2nd millennium. Bollettino del Laboratorio di Entomologia Agria 'Fillipo Silvestri' 54, 89-143.
149. ZANGI, G. (2003). Tick Control by Means of Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Fungi. MSc thesis. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.
150. ZHIOUA, E., BROWNING, M., JOHNSON, P. W., GINSBERG, H. S. & LEBRUN, R. A. (1997). Pathogenicity of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycetes) to Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae). Journal of Parasitology 83, 815-818.
151. ZHIOUA, E., GINSBERG, H. S., HUMBER, R. A. & LEBRUN, R. A. (1999a). Preliminary survey for entomopathogenic fungi associated with Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) in southern New York and New England, USA. Journal of Medical Entomology 36, 635-637.
152. ZHIOUA, E., HEYER, K., BROWNING, M., GINSBERG, H. S. & LEBRUN, R. A. (1999b). Pathogenicity of Bacillus thuringiensis variety kurstaki to Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 36, 900-902.
153. ZHIOUA, E., LEBRUN, R. A., GINSBERG, H. S. & AESCHLIMANN, A. (1995). Pathogenicity of Steinernema carpocapsae and S. glaseri (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) to Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 32, 900-905.